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THE  LIBRARY 
OF  THE 

ohiversityofiluhois 


THE  RAND-McNALLY  MAP  OF  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 


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PREFACE 


Each  chapter  in  this  volume  was  prepared  by  the  highes 
accessible  authority  on  the  subject  treated.  Readers  we  be 
lieve  will  take  peculiar  interest  in  the  chapters  by  Genera’ 
Tcheng-ki-tong,  for  they  reveal  the  remarkable  breadth  of 
view  and  keenness  of  perception  of  which  the  Chinese  are 
capable.  These  chapters  were  written  originally  in  French, 
but  have  been  translated  in  a scholarly  manner.  Though 
the  Chinese  officer  was  more  familiar  with  Paris  and  the 
French,  with  whom  he  lived  a number  of  years,  his  observa- 
^tions  will  be  found  to  apply  in  many  instances  marvelously 
ell  to  American  habits  and  customs. 

It  is  believed  that,  on  the  whole,  this  volume  will  be 
ound  more  comprehensive  and  authoritative  than  any  pre- 
iously  published  on  the  Chinese  Empire. 


THE  PUBLISHERS. 


To  CaUfornia  anoBaek 


176  pp.,  176  illustrations.  5 cts. 

A Colorado  Summer 


50  pp.,  80  illustrations.  3 cts. 

The  Moki  Snake  Dance 


60  pp.,  64  illustrations.  3 cts. 

Grand  Canon  of  Arizona 

32  pp.,  15  illustrations.  2 cts. 

New  Mexico  Health  Resorts 


88  pp.,  27  illustrations.  2 cts. 

Arizona  Health  Resorts 


Mailed  free  for  postage 
named  if  you  mention 
“Globe  Library.” 


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Las  Vegas  Hot  Springs 

48  pp.,  39  illustrations.  2 cts. 


► 


They  Tell  the  Story 

of  wonderful  sights  and  scenes,] 
and  special  resorts  for  touristy 
and  homeseekers  in  the  Gree 
West. 

They  are  published  by  the 

Santa  Fe  Route, 


are  literary  and  artistic,  a^ 
will  make  you  better  acquaint^ 
with  the  attractions  of  your  oi 
land. 


C.  A.  HIGGINS, 

.A.  G.  P.  A. , A.  T.  & S.  F.  Ry., 

L 1372  Great  Northern  Bldg. 


CHICAGO. 


CONTENTS 


Page 


Chapter 

B I.  General  Survey ii 

II.  Chinese  History  33 

III.  Recent  Events  in  China  . , , , « . 47 

IV.  Language  and  Literature  » , • . , . 55 

V.  Government  of  China  . « . o . « » 77 

^ VI.  Customs  and  Manners 108 

VII.  Real  Life  at  Ningpo  . . • o . • .138 

VIII.  Woman — Marriage — Divorce  , » „ « .170 

IX.  Religion  and  Philosophy 190 

X.  Finance  and  Commerce 196 

XL  Army  and  Navy  « . , , » . . 209 

Appendix.  Lord  Beresford’s  Speech  Before  the  Commer- 
cial Club,  Chicago  . .213 

IIRONOLOGY  OF  CHINA . 223 


PRONUNCIATION  AND  SPELLING  OF 
CHINESE  NAMES 


As  the  Chinese  language  has  no  alphabet,  but  depends, 
on  a combination  of  about  five  hundred  syllables,  foreigner^^ 
can  only  imitate  the  sounds  of  these  syllable^  as  nearly  a, 
possible  with  the  letters  of  their  own  alphabet.  Chinese 
words  are  therefore  to  be  pronounced  precisely  as  they  are 
spelled,  with  a sort  of  separate  emphasis  on  each  syllable. 

The  difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  vowels  have  differ- 
ent sounds  in  the  different  western  languages.  Thus,  maps 
made  in  Germany  will  have  one  spelling  and  maps  made  in 
England  will  have  another. 

For  instance,  the  syllables  chow  or  chou  in  English  and 
chau  in  German  are  pronounced  nearly  alike,  and  closely 
resemble  in  sound  the  Chinese  syllable  found  in  Hang-chow, 
Foo-chow,  etc.  So  in  German  has  the  same  sound  as 
''oo’’  in  English,  and  we  have  Chifu  or  Chefoo — the  “i’’  in 
continental  languages  being  pronounced  much  like  our  ^'e.'’ 
Thus  Li  Hung  Chang  should  have  the  Li  sounded  like  Lee, 
and  in  most  cases  '4’’  has  its  short  or  French  sound.  Kmxg- 
su  might  have  been  turned  into  English  as  Keang-soo,  etc. 

The  syllables  soo,  su  and  seu  are  really  all  the  same,  and 
merely  represent  a confusion  in  modern  writing;  so  w^ith 
quang  and  kwang,  etc. 

The  long  sound  of  '4”  is  usually  represented  by  '^ai. 


1 

I 


in  ShcMghai;  some  times  by 
long  sound. 


‘ei.”  “I”  alone  never  has 


(8) 


CHINESE  NAMES 


Sometimes  the  original  Chinese  syllables  are  treate 
separate  words,  as  in  Hong  Kong;  but  it  is  more  usual 
to  write  this  name  as  one  word,  Hongkong,  Someti 
the  syllables  are  hyphenated,  as  in  Tcheng-ki-tong;  and 
method  represents  the  Chinese  pronunciation  as  well  as 
The  Chinese  syllable  kin  or  king  seems  to  have  a slig 
nasal  sound,  and  formally  the  ‘'g’’  was  written  after  the  ‘hi 
but  Pekin  is  almost  universal  now  in  place  of  Peking,  thou: 
we  have  T ong-king  where  we  used  to  have  T onquin. 

It  seems  a pity  that  some  recognized  authority  could  r 
establish  a uniform  method  of  writing  Chinese  names.  Th 
their  pronunciation  would  offer  no  difficulty  whatever, 
the  English  letters  are  supposed  to  be  exactly  equivalent 
the  Chinese  sound.  In  the  present  volume,  in  spite  of  som 
efforts  to  secure  uniformity,  we  have  found  it  impossib 
to  establish  a perfectly  harmonious  style. 

The  following  table  shows  the  usual  pronunciation 
Chinse  names,  whatever  spelling  is  adopted : 


a = a in  ah 

Pa 

pah 

Shara 

shah '-rah' 

e = a in  ale 

Le 

la 

e = e 

Ke-lung 

ke'-lung'i 

Cheng-te 

Cheng '-ta' 

i = ee 

U 

lee 

i = i 

Chin-yuen 

chin'-yoo-en' 

u = oo 

Fu 

foo 

U = u 

Chung 

chung 

y ==ee 

Tsun-y 

tsun ' -ee ' 

Y-Chou 

ee ' -choo ' 

ae  = i 

Ting-hae 

ting '-hi' 

Tong-lae 

tong'-H' 

ai  = 1 

Hoai 

ho'-i' 

Ai-chow 

i ' -chow ' 

ao  = ah-o 

Macao 

mah-cah ' -o 

lyiao 

lee'-ah'-o 

au  = ah-oo 

Matau 

mah'-tah'-oo 

Pitau 

pee'-tah'-oo 

CHINESE  NAMES 


: 

ee-ah 

ee-eh 

ee-oo 


o-ah 

o-a 

00 

oo-ah 

oo-eh 

oo-ee 
= ee-ah-o 
= ee-oo-a 
= oo-a 
as  oo-a 
ei  = a-oo-o-a 


Hiayntong 

Cayuen 

Hoei 

Pei-ho 

Ho-kian 

Che-kiang 

Kien-Lung 

I-kien 

Cha-kiu 

lyiu-chou 

Kai-hoa 

Wei-hoe 

Fou-Chou 

Hou-pe 

Hua-Tsiang 

Se-clmen 

Yuen-Tcheou 

lyui-chow 

Seng-tniao-se 

Siuen-hwa 

Kuei-Chou 

Sung-pan-ouei 

Taolcheouoei 


hee-ine'-tong' 

cah'-yoo-en' 

ho '-a' 

pa '-ho' 

ho ' -kee-ahn ' 

cheh'-kee-ahng' 

kee-en'-lung' 

ee ' -kee-en ' 

chah'-kee-oo' 

lee-oo'-choo' 

ki'-ho-ah' 

wa'-ho-a' 

foo'-choo' 

hoo'-pa' 

hwah'-tsee-ang' 

sa'-choo-en' 

yoo-en'-choo' 

loo-ee'-chow' 

seng ' - mee-ah ' -o-sa 

see-oo-an ' -h  wah ' 

koo-a'-choo' 

sung-pan'-oo-a' 

towl'-choo'-wa' 


:tch  Chi-ching  tehee '-tching 

ss  Szechuen  ssa'-choo-en' 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

PAST  AND  PRESENT 


CHAPTER  I 


GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  CHINA 


In  extent,  in  square  miles,  and  in  gross  amount  of  popu] 
lation,  China  is  not  only  one  of  the  greatest  empires  i 
the  world,  but  one  of  the  very  greatest  that  has  ever  existed^ 
or,  rather,  that  has  ever  cohered  for  so  great  a length  of 
time.  With  all  its  dependencies  and  tributary  states  it  may 
be  considered  as  extending  from  the  north  of  the  sea  of 
Japan  to  the  river  Sihon  in  the  west — a space  of  8i  degrees, 
equal  to  4,900  English  miles.  From  north  to  south  it 
stretches  from  the  Ural  mountains,  in  north  latitude  50 
degrees,  to  the  southern  border,  about  latitude  21  degrees, 
being  29  degrees,  or  nearly  2,300  English  miles.  Of  this 
immense  area  China  Proper  measures  about  1,200  geographi 
ical  miles  in  length,  and  not  much  less  in  average  breadth 
Beyond  the  widest  limits  are  other  regions,  professing' 
dependence  on  the  Celestial  empire,  or  whose  populations 
have  the  laws  and  manners,  and  speak  or  read  the  language^. 
,of  the  Chinese;  with  whom,  in  fact,  their  own  are  almost 
identified. 

The  climate  of  China  presents  every  variety  of  tempera- 
ture, from  the  snows  and  chilling  blasts  of  Siberia  to  th 

(n)  / 


prching  heat  of  the  torrid  zone,  on  its  southern  borders, 
other  words,  nearly  every  kind  of  climate  may  be  found 
hin  the  limits  of  the  empire.  “No  country,”  says  a 
,ent  writer,  “presents  greater  diversities  in  its  physical 
ography,  productions  and  natural  history  than  this  extens- 
^e  territory,  whether  we  regard  its  verdant  and  cultivated 
lains,  or  its  sterile  and  solitary  deserts,  its  mountains  and 
valleys,  its  gigantic  rivers,  its  cities  teeming  with  intelli- 
it  and  civilized  inhabitants,  or  its  mountain  fastnesses 
its  forests,  the  abodes  of  wild  beasts  or  marauding  ban- 
ti.  Its  frontier  barrier — the  Great  Wall — and  its  princi* 
,al  canal  are  justly  regarded,  from  their  magnitude  and 
ptiquity,  as  among  the  wonders  of  the  world.” 

The  loftiest  mountains  are  chiefly  at  the  extremities  of 
le  empire,  but  in  the  interior  are  found  many  ridges,  rang- 
g in  elevation  from  3,000  to  8,000  feet.  Without  consid- 
ring  the  difference  and  variety  of  original  races  (for  China, 
10  more  than  any  other  great  country,  was  stocked  by  one 
ole  race),  the  diversity  of  climate  must  of  necessity  have 
)roduced  a wide  difference  in  its  inhabitants;  for,  to  take 
only  the  extreme  points,  the  people  settled  in  the  bleak 
egions  of  the  north  must  have  grown  up  unlike  those  inhab- 
ting  the  sultry  and  enervating  south.  Even  a practiced 
uropean  in  China  can,  at  mere  sight,  make  an  approxima- 
ion  to  the  part  of  the  empire  to  which  any  Chinese  presented 
!)  him  may  belong.  The  population,  though  less  varied, 
erhaps,  than  any  inhabiting  an  equal  extent  of  territory  in 
,ny  other  part  of  the  globe,  presents  this  diversity  as  caused 
by  climate,  as  also  that  which  proceeds  from  difference  of 
paces.  Of  these  are  many  others  blended  and  intermixed, 

E the  principal  elements  or  races  are  the  Chinese,  Manchu, 
ngol,  Kalmuk,  Korean  and  Tibetan. 

In  its  general  aspect  China  presents  a series  of  river 
ins  or  broad  valleys  of  rivers,  and  of  lowlands  along  the 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


sea  coast,  divided  by  ranges  of  hills,  which  rise  in  maj 
places  to  a very  considerable  elevation.  Yunnan,  the  soun 
western  province,  is  exceedingly  mountainous,  and  seni 
out  two  branches  eastward,  one  of  which  separates  t 
valley  or  basin  of  the  Si-Kiang  River  from  the  coasts  of  the 
Gulf  of  Tongking ; the  other  separates  it  from  the  basin  of  the 
Yangtse-kiang  River  and  its  affluents,  whose  basins  are 
themselves  divided  by  ranges  which  diverge  from  eact 
other,  and  from  the  coasts  of  the  east  sea.  The  basin  of  thi 
Yangtse-kiang  is  separated  from  that  of  the  Hwang-hc 
by  a continuation  of  high  land,  which  trends  eastward  fronr 
the  Peling  mountains  on  the  borders  of  Tartary,  but  which 
terminating  before  it  reaches  the  coast,  leaves  a broad  allu- 
vial plain  between  the  mouths  of  these  two  great  rivers 
The  remaining  portion  of  the  country  lying  between  the 
Hwang-ho  and  Gulf  of  Pi-chi-li  consists  of  the  basin  of  the 
Pei-ho  and  the  Eu-ho,  having  the  hills  of  Shantung 
province  on  the  south,  and  a cross  range  on  the  west,  and 
communicating  with  the  basin  of  the  Hwang-ho  by  an  open- 
ing at  the  angle  formed  by  the  two  ranges.  The  appearance 
of  even  that  portion  of  the  country  which  has  been  traverse* 
during  these  last  sixty  years  by  Europeans  is  exceedingly 
diversified.  Between  Canton  and  Pekin,  a distance  of  1,200 
miles,  the  first  British  embassy  observed  nearly  every  variety 
of  surface,  but  each  variety  was  very  remarkably  disposed 
in  large  broad  masses.  For  many  days  they  saw  nothing 
but  one  continuous  plain;  for  as  many  days  they  were 
hemmed  in  by  precipitous  mountains,  naked  and  unvaried; 
and  for  ten  or  twelve  days  more  their  course  lay  through 
akes,  swamps  and  morasses.  There  was  a constant  succes- 
fion  of  large  villages,  towns  and  cities,  with  consider 
lavigable  riv*eis,  communicating  with  each  other 
f artificial  canals.  Both  canals  and  rivers 
ith  boat^n^arges.  They  saw  no  hed^ 


;e 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 




^Praces  from  the  sea.  As  yet  its  geology  is  very  imperfectly 
Bio,wn.  China,  however,  has  been  well  mapped.  The  scien- 
»fic  skill  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  accomplished  a sur- 
vey of  the  whole  on  trigonometrical  principles,  so  admirably 
.orrect  as  to  admit  of  little  improvement;  and,  with  the 
jxception  of  the  British  possessions  in  India,  there  is  no 
art  of  Asia  so  well  laid  down  as  China. 

Since  the  time  of  the  Jesuits’  survey,  however,  an  alter- 
ition  has  taken  place  in  the  divisions  of  the  country,  as  the 
)rovinces,  which  then  consisted  of  fifteen  in  all,  have  been 
ncreased,  by  the  subdivision  of  three  of  the  largest,  to 
ighteen. 

The  two  principal  rivers  of  China  occupy  a very  high 
ank.  The  Yangtse-kiang  and  the  great  Yellow  River  sur- 
pass all  the  rivers  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  are  secondary 
only  to  the  Amazon  and  the  Mississippi  in  America.  The 
Yangtse-kiang,  or  the  “Son  of  the  Sea,”  rises  in  Kokonor, 
not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Yellow  River.  Making  a 
circuitous  course,  and  receiving  the  tribute  of  innumerable 
k treams  and  the  superfluous  waters  of  two  immense  lakes 
Rthe  Tong-ting-hoo  and  the  Poyang-hoo),  it  flows  past 
^Nanking  into  the  ocean,  which  it  reaches  under  the  thirty- 
second  parallel  of  latitude.  This  vast  stream  runs  with 
such  a strong  current  that  Lord  Amherst’s  embassy  found 
extreme  difficulty  in  sailing  up  its  course  toward  the  Poyang 
lake. 

The  Yellow  River  also  rises  in  the  country  of  Kokonor; 
.but  while  the  Yangtse-kiang  turns  to  the  south,  the  Yellow 
[River  strikes  off  abruptly  to  the  north,  passes  across  the 
at  Wall,  making  an  elbow  round  the  ter!it,ory  of 
then  strikes  back  and  again  crosses  t| ‘Great  WallJ 
^ws  due  south,  and  forms  the  boundary  of  Shan-| 
£om  .which  boundary/  it  turns  sharply  to 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


15 


east,  and  so  flows  on  until  it  reaches  the  ocean  in  latitude 
34  degrees.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  two  great  rivers  of 
China,  which  rise  at  a small  distance  from  each  other,  after 
taking  such  opposite  courses,  and  being  separated  by  fully 
fifteen  degrees  of  latitude,  should  reach  the  sea  within  two 
degrees  of  the  same  point.  The  stream  of  the  Yellow  River  is 
so  excessively  rapid  as  to  be  nearly  unnavigable  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  its  course.  It  carries  along  with  it  a pro- 
digious quantity  of  yellow  mud  in  a state  of  solution,  and  its 
frequent  floods  occasion  great  damage  to  the  country  and 
expense  to  the  government  in  maintaining  artificial  embank- 
ments. But  its  waters  fill  numerous  canals,  which  are  fur- 
nished with  locks,  and  carry  fertility  to  many  districts  which 
would  otherwise  be  dry  and  sterile.  As  for  the  internal 
commerce  of  the  empire,  the  Chinese  are  rendered  almost 
entirely  independent  of  the  rivers  and  of  coast  navigation  by 
their  Imperial  Canal,  which,  in  point  of  extent  and  magni- 
tude of  undertaking,  is,  like  the  Great  Wall,  unrivaled  by 
any  other  work  of  the  kind  in  the  known  world. 

The  flat,  sandy  and  unproductive  province  in  which 
Pekin  is  situated  offers,  according  to  universal  report,  little 
that  is  worthy  of  notice.  The  vast  plateau,  or  elevated  plain, 
which  surrounds  that  capital,  is  entirely  devoid  of  trees, 
but  wood  is  procured  from  the  nearest  hills  and  mountains 
of  Tartary.  The  province  of  Keang-nan,  now  divided  into 
two,  is  described  as  the  richest  province  in  all  China.  It  is 
famous  for  its  silks  and  japanned  goods,  made  principally 
at  Suchow,  a very  ancient  city.  Nanking,  the  capital  of 
the  province,  and  at  one  time  of  the  whole  empire,  measures 
seventeen  English  miles  in  circumference ; but  only  a corner 
of  this  vast  area  is  now  occupied  by  the  habitations  of  men, 
the  city  having  suffered  greatly  in  the  wars  with  the  Tartars, 
and  in  consequence  of  the  removal  of  the  court  and  capital 
to  Pekin.  In  the  district  of  Hoey-chow-foo,  the  most^ 


- 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


southern  part  of  the  province,  is  grown  the  best  green  tea; 
the  soil  in  which  the  tea-plants  are  reared  is  a decomposition 
of  granite,  abounding  in  feldspar,  as  is  proved  by  the  soil 
being  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  porcelain. 
Thus,  as  Davis  observes,  the  same  soil  produces  the  tea  and 
Ithe  cups  in  which  it  is  drunk. 

The  adjoining  province  of  Keang-sy  is  described  as 
being,  in  natural  scenery  and  climate,  the  most  delightful 
part  of  the  empire.  Here  the  Poyang  lake,  in  size  approach- 
ing the  character  of  an  inland  sea,  spreads  its  broad  waters 
and  exhibits  on  its  west  side  a long  framework  of  strikingly 
eautiful  mountain  scenery. 

The  maritime  province  of  Chekiang  competes  with  the 
reat  province  of  Keang-nan  in  the  production  of  silk  and 
:he  extent  of  its  plantations  of  young  mulberry  trees,  which 
re  constantly  lopped  and  renewed,  as  the  most  certain  way 
of  improving  the  silk  spun  by  the  worms  which  feed  on  the 
leaves.  The  younger  the  tree,  the  more  tender  the  leaves ; 
and  the  more  tender  the  leaves,  the  finer  the  silk.  It  is  by 
want  of  attention  to  this  rule  that  silk,  in  several  parts  of 
the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  various  Asiatic  countries, 
has  deteriorated  in  quality.  The  principal  city  of  this  prov- 
ince is  the  celebrated  Hang-chow,  close  to  the  famous  lake 
Sy-hoo.  This  beautiful  lake  is  about  six  miles  in  circum- 
ference, its  water  is  quite  limpid,  and  almost  overspread  with 
the  beautiful  water  lily.  It  figures  continually  in  Chinese 
tales,  poems,  apothegms,  similes  and  songs,  and  is  held  as  a 
place  sacred  to  pleasure  and  enjoyment.  Its  extensive  sheet 
of  water  is  described  as  being  covered  with  barges,  which 
are  splendidly  fitted  up,  and  appear  to  be  the  perpetual 
^abodes  of  gayety  and  dissipation.  The  province  of  Fokien, 
^ which  is  contiguous  to  Chekiang,  and  like  it  maritime,  is 
[very  far  from  being  so  fertile.  But  its  inhabitants  are  the 
est  sailors,  and  the  boldest  and  most  adventurous  part  of 


GENERAL  SURVEY 

the  Chinese  population;  they  chiefly  supply  the  Emperor’s 
war-junks  with  sailors  and  commanders;  they  build  an 
immense  number  of  the  trading  junks  that  are  found  in  the 
seas  of  China  and  Malacca,  and  they  furnish  the  greater 
part  of  the  Chinese  emigrants  to  foreign  countries.  Fokien, 
moreover,  is  the  great  country  of  the  black  teas;  and  our 
word  Bohea  is  merely  a corruption  of  Bu-ee,  the  name  which 
the  natives  give  to  the  hills  on  which  those  black  teas  are 
principally  grown. 

The  inland  provinces  of  the  empire,  though  surveyed  by 
the  Jesuits,  are  less  known  to  Europeans,  and  are  believed 
to  be  less  suited  to  the  purposes  of  commerce.  One  of  the 
largest  of  them  is  Hoo-Kuang,  which  is  divided  by  the  vast 
lake,  Tong-ting-hoo.  To  the  southwest  of  this  is  the  prov- 
ince of  Kuang-sy ; and  to  the  north  of  Kuang-sy,  a moun- 
tainous province,  inhabited  by  a race  called  Meaou-tse,  who 
have  ever  defied  the  Chinese  in  the  midst  of  their  empire, 
and  maintained  their  independence  in  their  rugged  country 
and  mountain  fastnesses  in  spite  of  every  effort  made  by  the 
Celestial  emperors  to  subdue  them.  The  greatest  of  Chinese 
armies  have  failed  in  penetrating  into  the  country,  and  have  < 
invariably  retreated  from  that  iron  boundary  with  shame 
and  heavy  loss.  The  ridges  occupied  by  these  Meaou-tse 
are  said  to  extend  from  west  to  east  for  the  length  of  nearly 
400  miles.  The  men  do  not  shave  off  their  hair  like  the 
Tartars  and  Chinese,  but  wear  it  tied  up  in  the  ancient  fash- 
ion of  the  Celestials  before  they  were  conquered  by  the 
Manchu  Tartars.  The  Chinese,  who  both  hate  and  fear 
them,  in  affected  contempt  call  them  ‘^dog-men”  and  ‘'wolf- 
men,”  and  vow  that  they  have  tails  like  apes  and  baboons. 
There  is  hardly  any  intercourse  between  the  two.  The 
Chinese,  without  venturing  into  their  mountains,  purchase 
from  them  the  timber  trees  of  their  forests ; and  these,  being 
thrown  into  the  rapid  rivers  which  intersect  the  upland 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


country,  are  floated  down  into  the  plains.  The  Meaou-tse 
manufacture  carpets  for  their  own  use,  and  make  Jiinen  from 
a species  of  wild  hemp.  They  are  said  to  inhabit  houses  of 
one  story,  raised  on  tall  piles^  and  to  stable  their  domestic 
animals  under  their  houses. 

The  province  of  Yunnan,  the  most  western  part  of 
China  Proper,  borders  on  the  Burmese  territory,  and  extends 
nearly  to  Amara-pura,  the  old  capital  of  that  kingdom.  It 
is  extremely  mountainous,  and  abounds  in  metals  and  other 
valuable  minerals,  among  which  is  said  to  be  good  coal.  The 
copper  is  said  to  be  very  fine,  and  nearly  equal  in  quality 
to  the  copper  worked  in  the  islands  of  Japan.  Gold  is  found 
in  the  sands  of  the  rivers,  and  the  Yangtse-kiang,  in  this 
part  of  its  course,  is  called  the  ^^golden-sanded  river.’^  To- 
ward the  northwest  of  this  province,  and  the  borders  of  the 
Tibet  country,  is  found  the  yak,  or  cow  of  Tibet,  the  tails 
of  which  are  so  famous.  The  people  of  the  province  use  the 
tail-hairs  in  various  manufactures,  particularly  carpets. 
Though  presenting  a more  Alpine  character  than  any  other 
part  of  China  Proper,  Yunnan  yet  contains  some  extensive, 
broad  and  finely  watered  plains. 

The  extensive  province  on  the  northeast  of  Yunnan  is 
traversed  by  very  lofty  mountains,  called  the  ‘‘Mountains 
of  Snow.’’  These  peaks,  which  are  probably  from  io,ooo  to 
12,000  feet  high,  look  over  the  mysterious,  closed  country 
of  the  Belli  Lama.  The  province  of  Shensi,  which  also 
borders  on  Tibet,  is  said  to  abound  in  mineral  wealth — 
in  mines  which  have  neither  been  worked  nor  visited  by  any 
people  of  the  west  for  very  many  ages.  Both  this  country 
and  the  adjoining  province  of  Shansi,  toward  Pekin, 
abound  in  craters  and  other  symptoms  of  extensive  and  tre- 
mendous volcanic  action.  Sulphur,  tufa,  salt-water  lakes, 
hot  wells,  springs  with  jets  of  inflammable  gas,  pools  of 


GENERAL  SURVEY 

petroleum  (which  the  Chinese  burn  in  lamps),  are  found  all 
through  these  regions. 

The  countries  contiguous  to,  and  dependent  on,  China 
may  be  briefly  dismissed.  The  region  of  Manchu  Tartary 
consists  of  three  provinces — i.  Mougden,  or  Shing-King, 
commences  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Great  Wall,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Pi-chi-li.  Here,  in 
the  country  from  which  they  originally  came,  the  emperors 
are  buried.  2.  Kirin,  the  second  province  of  Manchu  Tar- 
tary, is  to  the  eastward  of  Mougden,  and  borders  on  Korea. 
Here  the  famous  wild  plant,  ginseng,  to  which  the  Chinese 
attribute  miraculous  properties,  is  gathered,  as  an  exclusive 
monopoly  of  the  emperor.  They  would  never  believe  that 
this  plant  could  grow  in  any  other  part  of  the  world ; but  a 
few  years  ago  some  Americans  carried  the  very  same  to 
Canton,  it  having  been  discovered  in  their  New  England 
States,  in  a climate  and  situation  very  similar  to  those  of 
Eastern  Tartary.  3.  Heloong-keang,  or  '^the  river  of  the 
Black  Dragon,’’  is  inhabited  by  the  Tagours,  and  borders  on 
the  Russian  territory.  The  river  which  gives  its  name  to  the 
province  is,  in  fact,  the  Amur. 

All  these  regions  are  excessively  cold  in  winter,  and 
sterile,  and  thinly  peopled.  The  population  seems  to  be 
chiefly  employed  in  tending  sheep,  or  rearing  horses  and 
other  cattle.  As  they  approach  the  frontiers  of  the  domin- 
ions of  the  Czar  of  Russia  they  become  very  independent  of 
Chinese  rule,  yet  they  acknowledge  the  laws  and  follow  most 
of  the  customs  of  the  'Uentral  Kingdom.” 

The  western  or  Mongol  Tartars,  commencing  from  the 
western  line  of  the  Great  Wall,  extend  as  a distinct  race 
to  the  very  borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  they,  too, 
give  the  hand  to  the  subjects  of  Russia.  They  are  thor- 
oughly a nomadic  people,  wandering  with  their  flocks  from 
one  region  to  another,  dwelling  in  tents,  and  still  making 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

use  of  the  bow  and  arrow  in  warfare  as  in  hunting.  They 
appear  to  be  all  Buddhists ; the  bonzes  or  priests,  who  accom- 
pany them  in  their  wanderings,  are  called  Shamans.  They 
are  governed  through  the  medium  of  their  own  princes  or 
khans,  but  a vast  portion  of  them  acknowledge  a dependence 
on  China. 

On  the  western  side  of  China  Proper  are  Jungaria,  Tibet 
and  East  Turkestan,  inhabited  by  Tartar  tribes,  who  occupy 
inaccessible  mountains  and  have  hardly  yet  come  into  touch 
with  civilization.  Though  but  little  subject  to  Chinese 
control,  these  large  districts  are  reckoned  a part  of  the 
Chinese  empire. 

If  we  limit  our  observations  to  China  Proper  (which,  it 
must  be  remembered,  is  about  1,400  English  miles  long  and 
nearly  as  broad  as  it  is  long),  and  make  every  deduction  for 
the  less  favored  parts  of  the  land,  we  must  still  admit,  with 
our  oldest  travelers,  that  it  deserves  the  name  of  a vast,  a 
fertile,  a wealthy  and  a beautiful  country. 

China  is  uncommonly  rich  in  vegetable  productions. 
The  southern  provinces  possess  all  that  are  found  growing 
in  the  tropical  regions.  In  other  parts,  oranges,  lemons, 
teas,  sugar-canes,  rice,  pomegranates,  black  and  white  mul- 
berries, the  vine,  walnut,  chestnut,  peach,  apricot  and  fig 
are  seen  growing  on  the  same  spot  of  ground.  Camelias, 
cypresses  and  bamboos,  of  all  sorts  and  sizes,  and  in  immense 
quantities,  are  also  found.  The  mountains,  for  the  most 
part,  are  covered  with  pines  and  other  forest  trees.  The 
list  we  already  possess  of  Chinese  plants  is  a very  copious 
one,  but  many  new  discoveries  remain  to  gratify  and  reward 
botanical  research.  The  principal  object  of  cultivation  is 
rice;  but  in  the  northwestern  provinces,  where  there  are 
many  districts  too  cold  and  dry  for  this  grain,  rice  is  replaced 
by  wheat.  Yams,  potatoes,  turnips,  onions,  beans,  and, 
above  all,  a white  kind  of  cabbage,  called  potsai,  are  exten- 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


sively  and  very  carefully  cultivated.  The  Chinese  pay  more 
attention  to  the  manuring  of  the  soil  of  their  gardens  and 
orchards  than  any  other  people,  whether  in  the  east  or  in 
the  west. 

The  zoology  is  very  rich  and  varied ; for  although  China 
possesses  scarcely  any  animals  which  are  not  to  be  found  in 
some  other  countries,  she  has  within  her  wide  limits  and 
diversified  surface  nearly  all  those  which  are  found  collect- 
ively in  all  the  other  countries  of  the  globe.  The  elephant, 
the  rhinoceros,  the  dromedary,  abound  in  various  parts. 
Bears  are  very  common  in  the  hilly  country  west  of  Pekin, 
and  the  paws  of  these  animals,  which  abound  in  fat,  are 
eaten  by  the  Chinese  as  a delicacy.  Deer  of  various  kinds, 
from  the  majestic  elk  to  the  diminutive  tippity,  wild  boars, 
foxes  and  other  wild  animals,  swarm  in  some  of  the  prov- 
inces. The  lion,  the  Bengal  tiger,  the  leopard,  the  ounce,  the 
lynx,  the  hyena,  the  jackal  and  other  savage  creatures  are 
found.  According  to  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  and  to  their 
successors  in  our  own  days,  the  tiger  abounds  to  a fearful 
extent  in  some  parts  of  the  empire;  but  we  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  a good  many  of  the  animals  they  saw  in  their 
lonely  perambulations  were  not  tigers,  but  leopards.  The 
lion  has  become  degenerate  and  scarce.  The  woods  of  the 
south  swarm  with  the  breed  of  a wild  cat,  which,  though 
rather  small,  is  fierce,  and  altogether  untamable.  This 
noxious  creature  is  considered  by  Chinese  epicures  as  an 
exquisite  kind  of  game,  and  it  is  served  up  in  ragouts  and 
stews  at  table,  after  being  fed  for  some  time  in  a cage. 

Some  of  the  native  birds  are  very  splendid.  The 
gold  and  silver  pheasants  of  China  are  now  quite 
famiiiar  to  the  eye  in  England.  The  still  more  splen- 
did bird,  called  the  Reeves'  pheasant,  is  still  a rarity,  even 
in  China.  Its  tail  feathers  are  of  the  extraordinary  length 
of  six  feet,  and  surpassingly  beautiful.  It  comes  from  the 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


^cold  climate  of  the  north,  and  might  be  propagated  in  Eng- 
land in  a natural  state,  but,  unfortunately,  Mr.  Reeves  could 
procure  only  four  male  birds.  Another  description  is  called 
by  the  eminent  naturalist,  Mr.  Bennett,  the  medallion  pheas- 
ant, from  a beautiful  membrane  of  resplendent  colors,  which 
is  displayed  or  contracted  according  as  the  bird  is  more  or 
less  roused.  The  brilliant  hues  are  chiefly  purple,  with 
bright  red  and  green  spots,  which  vary  in  intensity 
according  to  the  degree  of  excitement.  It  should 
appear  that  this  rare  pheasant  might  be  acclimated  in  most 
parts  of  Europe.  The  country  abounds  in  wild  fowls 
of  all  kinds.  The  immense  flocks  of  geese  and  wild  ducks, 
which,  during  the  winter  months,  quite  cover  the  Canton 
River,  excite  the  notice  of  all  strangers.  In  the  summer 
season  they  migrate  to  the  north.  A handsome  species  of 
teal,  usually  called  ''the  mandarin  duck,^’  is  very  common. 
Unlike  its  fellows,  it  generally  roosts  in  high  situations, 
upon  trees  or  rocks.  The  fishing  cormorant,  which  the  Chi- 
nese have  perfectly  tamed  and  trained  to  their  will,  is  well 
known  by  drawings,  engravings  and  descriptions.  It  is  a 
brown  bird,  of  the  pelican  family,  with  yellow  bill,  white 
throat  and  whitish  breast  spotted  with  brown,  having  a com- 
pact rounded  tail.  While  employed  in  diving  and  fishing  for 
their  masters,  these  birds  are  prevented  from  swallowing 
what  they  catch  by  means  of  a ring  or  tight  collar  passed 
over  the  lower  part  of  the  neck ; but  when  their  work  is  over 
this  ring  is  removed,  and  they  are  allowed  to  fish  for  them- 
selves or  to  feed  upon  the  refuse.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
they  are  sometimes  so  perfectly  trained  and  disciplined  as 
to  need  no  restraint  whatever — that  they  will  finish  the  work 
for  their  masters  before  they  think  of  themselves.  On  the 
Canton  River,  and  on  nearly  every  other  considerable  stream, 
there  is  a large  aquatic  population,  dwelling  in  boats  and 
barges,  and  seldom  setting  foot  on  shore.  With  two  or  three 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


good  fishing  cormorants  a family  of  this  sort  can  nearly  sup- 
port itself.  Quails  are  very  abundant,  and  the  Chinese  have 
trained  them  to  fight,  like  our  game  cocks.  The  sport  is 
much  cherished  by  the  common  people,  who  will  frequently 
stake  all  they  possess  on  the  result  of  a quail  fight.  A 
delicate  species  of  ortolan  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Canton  during  the  rice  harvest.  The  Chi- 
nese call  it  the  ^Tice  bird.’’ 

In  other  parts  of  the  empire  crocodiles,  alligators  and 
monstrous  serpents  exist;  but  the  neighborhood  of  Canton, 
though  under  the  tropic,  is  little  infested  by  these  reptiles  or 
by  any  venomous  creatures.  There  is,  however,  a slender 
snake,  between  two  and  three  feet  long,  which  is  very  much 
dreaded  by  the  natives,  and  the  bite  of  which  is  said  to  cause 
inevitable  death  in  a few  hours.  It  is  covered  from  head 
to  tail  with  alternate  bands  of  black  and  white,  and  is  called 
by  the  Chinese  the  black-and-white  snake. 

Fish  are  in  great  and  almost  endless  variety.  Besides 
those  produced  in  the  seas,  gulfs,  bays  and  estuaries,  fresh- 
water fish  (of  which  great  care  is  taken)  swarm  in  most  of 
the  rivers,  lakes,  canals  and  brooks.  On  the  sea  coast  and 
at  Canton  the  sturgeon  is  held  in  high  estimation.  Sir  John 
F.  Davis  remarks,  ‘The  Chinese  stew  made  from  this  fish 
is  so  palatable  as  to  have  been  introduced  at  the  tables  of 
Europeans.  Some  gastronome  or  other  has  observed  that 
every  country  affords  at  least  one  good  dish/'  Is  stewed 
sturgeon  the  one  good  dish  of  China  ? The  beautiful  gold  and 
silver  fishes  v/hich  ornament  our  vases  and  garden  ponds 
came  originally  from  China,  where  they  are  very  numerous, 
They  are  a species  of  carp,  and  were  carried  by  the  Dutch  first 
to  Java  and  thence  to  Holland.  But,  according  to  another 
account,  they  were  first  brought  to  Europe  by  some  of  the 
missionaries,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  many  other  im- 
portations, and  for  more  information  about  China  and  the 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


aujacent  countries  than  has  been  supplied  from  any  other 
quarter  or  class  of  men. 

Among  the  insects  of  China  there  are  some  which  call  for 
notice  even  in  a brief  and  general  sketch  like  the  present. 
A monstrous  spider  is  found  inhabiting  trees,  and  attaining 
to  such  size  and  strength  as  to  be  able  to  catch  and  devour 
small  birds,  as  our  spiders  do  flies.  Locusts  sometimes  com- 
mit extensive  ravages,  but  it  is  said  that  their  depredations 
do  not  usually  extend  over  any  great  tract  of  country  at 
once,  and  that  they  seldom  appear  two  years  successively. 
Eastward  of  the  city  of  Canton,  on  a range  of  hills  called 
Lo-fow-shan,  there  are  butterflies  of  large  size  and  night- 
moths  of  immense  dimensions  and  most  brilliant  coloring, 
which  are  captured  for  transmission  to  the  court  at  Pekin^ 
and  for  sale  at  Canton  and  other  cities.  Some  of  these 
insects  measure  nine  inches  across ; their  ground  color  is  a 
I rich  and  varied  orange  brown,  in  the  center  of  each  wing 
Ithere  is  a triangular  transparent  spot,  resembling  a piece  of 
Pmica. 

Sphinx-moths,  also  of  great  beauty  and  size,  are  common 
around  Canton,  and  in  their  splendid  coloring,  rapid,  noise- 
less flight  from  flower  to  flower,  at  the  close  of  day,  remind 
one  of  the  humming-bird.  The  common  cricket  is  caught 
and  sold  in  the  markets  for  gambling,  and  persons  of  high 
rank,  as  well  as  the  vulgar,  amuse  themselves  by  irritating 
two  of  these  insects  in  a bowl,  and  betting  upon  which  shall 
prove  the  conqueror.  A gigantic  species  of  the  cicada — 
described  as  being  more  than  four  times  the  size  of  the 
cicada  of  the  south  of  Italy  and  Greece — is  very  common 
among  the  trees  in  the  neighborhood  of  Canton,  and  in  every 
other  part  of  the  country  where  the  climate  is  warm  and  the 
pine  tree  abundant.  All  through  the  summer  its  stridulous 
sound  is  heard  from  the  trees  and  woods,  with  deafening 
loudness.  Even  those  who  have  been  stunned  by  the  noise 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


of  the  cicala  in  the  pine  forests  of  the  Italian  peninsula  have 
been  astonished  and  almost  stunned  by  the  Chinese  insect. 
These  loud  sounds  proceed  solely  from  the  males,  the 
females  being  perfectly  silent.  This  difference  must  have 
been  known  to  the  old  Greek  epigrammatist,  who  said,  ‘^The 
male  cicada  leads  a happy  life,  for  he  makes  all  the  noise 
himself  and  his  wife  makes  none.’’  Chinese  boys  often 
capture  the  males,  tie  a straw  round  the  abdomen,  so  as  to 
irritate  the  sounding  apparatus,  and  carry  them  through 
the  streets  in  this  predicament,  to  the  great  annoyance  of 
strangers.  The  fire-fly,  or,  as  it  is  called  here,  the  'dantern- 
fly,”  is  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  empire.  It  is 
far  larger  than  the  fire-fly  of  Southern  Europe,  and  said  to 
be  infinitely  more  luminous.  It  has  orange-yellow  wings, 
with  black  extremities.  Its  appearance,  when  seen  flitting 
through  the  skirts  of  a thicket  or  grove,  in  the  summer  even- 
ings, is  striking  and  poetical,  and  imparts  a brilliant  aspect 
to  the  shades  of  night.  The  pe-la-shoo,  or  wax-tree,  affords 
nourishment  to  an  insect  which  is  smaller  than  a common 
fly,  and  which  is  supposed  to  belong  to  the  coccus 
tribe,  though  it  would  appear  not  to  have  been  as  yet  cor- 
rectly examined  or  classed  by  entomologists.  It  is  covered 
with  a white  powder,  which  it  imparts  to  the  stem  of  the 
particular  plant  it  inhabits,  from  the  bark  of  which  it  is 
collected  by  the  natives.  This  substance  resembles  beeswax, 
and  is  used  as  such.  A casing  of  it,  colored  with  vermilion, 
is  often  used  to  enclose  the  tallow  candle.  Small  as  are  these 
insects,  the  quantity  of  wax  is  said  to  be  very  considerable. 
This  wax  is  used  as  a medicine,  as  well  as  made  into  candles 
and  tapers.  The  tree  or  shrub  it  inhabits  resembles  our 
privet.  An  insect,  examined  by  the  late  Sir  George  Staun- 
ton, was  completely  covered  with  a white  powder,  and  the 
stem  of  the  shrub  from  which  it  was  taken  was  whitened  all 
over  by  a similar  substance.  Wax  is  also  made  from  wild 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

and  domestic  bees,  but  honey  is  said  not  to  be  much  in 
demand. 

The  extent  to  which  the  written  language  is  understood 
renders  it  one  of  the  most  remarkable  that  has  ever  been 
used  among  mankind.  Dr.  Morrison  says : ‘‘The  Chinese 
language  is  now  read  by  a population  of  different  nations, 
amounting  to  a large  proportion  of  the  human  race,  and  over 
a most  extensive  geographical  space,  from  the  borders  of 
Russia  on  the  north,  throughout  Chinese  Tartary  on  the  : 
west,  and  in  the  east  as  far  as  Kamchatka ; and  downward,  | 
through  Korea  and  Japan,  in  the  Loo  Choo  islands.  Cochin-  ^ 
China,  and  the  islands  of  that  archipelago,  on  most  of  which 
are  Chinese  settlers,  till  you  come  down  to  the  equinoctial 
line  at  Penang,  Malacca,  Singapore  and  even  beyond  it  on 
Java.  Throughout  all  these  regions,  however  dialects  may 
differ  and  oral  languages  be  confounded,  the  Chinese  written 
language  is  understood  by  all.  The  voyager  and  the  mer- 
chant, the  traveler  arid  the  Chinese  missionary,  if  he  can 
write  Chinese,  may  make  himself  understood  throughout 
the  whole  of  Eastern  Asia.^’ 

The  Chinese,  as  is  well  known,  is  a language  to  the  eye, 
and  understood  by  all  the  nations  who  have  received  and 
learned  its  extraordinary  characters,  however  different  their 
vernacular  or  spoken  languages  may  be  from  the  spoken 
languages  of  China.  Mr.  J.  Crawfurd,  on  his  embassy  to 
Siam  and  Cochin-China,  stopped  at  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of 
Siam,  which  was  inhabited  only  by  a few  poor  Cochin- 
Chinese  fishermen  and  their  families.  They  could  not  speak 
a word  of  Chinese,  but  they  could  read  Chinese  characters ; 
and  when  Mr.  Crawfurd’s  interpreter  wrote  down  questions 
in  Chinese  one  of  the  head  fishermen  gave  him  intelligible 
replies  in  writing,  in  the  same  character.  Not  a word,  not 
a syllable,  was  exchanged  orally  between  the  two,  and  yet 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


Mr.  Crawfurd  obtained  the  information  he  wanted  about  the 
island. 

But  if  a knowledge  of  the  written  language  will  carry  a 
traveler  all  through  Eastern  Asia,  a familiarity  with  the 
spoken  tongue  is  invaluable  in  China.  It  is  a passport  to 
the  confidence  of  the  people,  and  a full  knowledge  of  the 
people  is  not  to  be  obtained  without  it. 

A recent  American  missionary  was  returning  home  one 
evening  on  a narrow  causeway  running  across  the  rice  fields, 
when  just  ahead  he  saw  a little  boy  standing  by  the  side  of 
his  father.  The  child  began  to  whimper  on  seeing  the  ogre 
of  a barbarian  coming,  but  the  parent  instantly  pacified  him 
by  saying,  ‘'Don’t  cry,  he  won’t  hurt  you;  he  can  talk  Chi- 
nese.” 

Although  China  was,  incontestably,  a great  empire  in  the 
flourishing  time  of  the  Greek  republics,  and  at  the  later 
period  when  the  Macedonian  conqueror  invaded  India,  it  is 
now  admitted  on  every  hand  that  the  Greeks  had  no  knowl- 
edge of  it  at  either  of  these  periods.  Alexander  seems  to 
have  fancied  that  the  remotest  east  ended  with  India. 
“Were  modern  conqueror  to  stop  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges 
and  sigh  that  he  had  no  more  nations  to  subdue,  what  has 
been  admired  in  the  pupil  of  Aristotle  himself  would  be  a 
mere  absurdity  in  the  most  ignorant  chieftain  of  our  times.” 
Until  some  centuries  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great 
there  is  not  in  any  Greek  writer  a single  word  or  phrase  that 
can  be  twisted  or  tortured,  by  any  ingenuity,  so  as  to  signify 
China. 

The  Romans,  even  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  or  on  the  very  eve  of  the  Christian  era,  seem  to 
have  known  no  more  of  the  Chinese  than  was  known  to  the 
Greeks,  whom  they  had  succeeded  as  conquerors,  colonists 
and  explorers.  The  people  mentioned  by  Horace  and  other 
Latin  writers  under  the  name  of  Seres  were  not  Chinese, 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


but  a people  inhabiting  a part  of  Asia  (no  doubt  India)  far 
to  the  westward  of  China;  and  these  people  furnished  the 
Romans,  not  with  silk,  but  with  fine  cotton  manufactures — 
the  gauzes  and  muslin  of  modern  commerce.  About  140 
years  after  the  birth  of  Christ  Arrian  first  speaks  of  the 
Sinae,  or  Thinae,  a people  in  the  remotest  parts  of  Asia,  by 
whom  were  exported  the  raw  and  manufactured  silks,  which 
were  brought  by  the  way  of  Bactria  (Bokhara)  westward, 
to  be  sold  at  Rome,  and  the  other  great  and  luxurious  cities 
of  that  empire.  It  must,  at  least,  have  been  known  by  this 
date  that  there  was  some  rich,  extensive  and  civilized  coun-  ' 
try  beyond  the  most  eastern  limits  of  India.  The  eager  ' 
demand  for  silk,  which  was  brought  in  continually  increas-  | 
ing  quantities  by  land  caravans  through  central  Asia  and  | 
Asia  Minor  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  or  Black  Sea,  , 
awakened  curiosity  as  to  the  country  of  its  production,  prep-  i 
aration  and  manufacture.  Some  twenty  years  after  the  | 
time  in  which  Arrian  wrote,  the  Roman  emperor,  Marcus 
Antoninus,  dispatched  an  embassy  to  the  ruler  of  the  land 
of  silks,  without  knowing  with  any  precision  where  that 
country  was  situated.  The  mission  embarked  either  on  the 
Red  Sea  or  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  appears  to  have  pursued 
the  same  navigation  (across  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  along  the 
coasts  of  India,  Pegu,  Siam  and  Malacca)  which  was  after- 
ward commonly  followed  by  the  mariners  and  traders  of 
Arabia.  The  learned  De  Guignes  shows,  from  Chinese 
authors,  that  this  expedition  took  place  in  A.  D.  160.  Like 
nearly  every  attempt  of  the  kind  in  subsequent  days,  the 
mission  of  Antoninus  appears  to  have  been  an  entire  failure, 
and  to  have  returned  without  accomplishing  any  practical 
benefit  to  intercourse  or  trade  between  the  two  greatest 
empires  in  the  world.  It  is  believed  that  it  was  received  at 
Low-Yang,  at  that  time  the  capital,  with  ostentatious  show 
and  patronizing  kindness.  The  embassy  is  noticed  in  an 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


29 


old  Chinese  work,  ''History  Made  Easy,’’  where  it  is  stated 
that,  in  the  reign  of  Wan-ti,  of  the  dynasty  of  Han,  a people 
came  from  India  and  other  western  nations  with  tribute ; and 
from  that  time  foreign  trade  was  carried  on  with  Canton. 
This  maritime  trade,  however,  appears  to  have  been  very 
scanty,  until  it  was  taken  up  in  good  earnest  by  the  enter- 
prising Arabs,  who  before  the  eighth  century  had  a great 
factory  at  Canton,  and  extensive  establishments  and  a very 
considerable  Arab  population  in  some  other  of  the  maritime 
parts  of  the  empire.  It  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  in  the 
ships  of  these  people  that  a very  considerable  number  of 
Parsees,  Jews  and  Nestorian  Christians  were  conveyed  to 
the  Coromandel  coast,  and  even  to  China,  where  they 
amounted  to  very  many  thousands  by  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century. 

Carpini,  St.  Quintin,  Rubruquis  and  the  other  missionary 
monks  dispatched  by  Pope  Innocent  IV  and  Louis  IX  of 
France,  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  to  the  Grand 
Khan  of  the  Tartars,  in  order  to  stop  that  people’s  destruc- 
tive irruptions  into  Western  Europe,  never  reached  any 
region  at  all  near  to  the  frontiers  of  China.  It  was  not  until 
the  return  of  the  celebrated  Venetian  traveler  Marco  Polo, 
or,  rather,  not  until  Marco  produced  the  written  account  of 
his  travels  (somewhere  between  the  years  1298  and  1308), 
that  a flood  of  Chinese  light  was  let  in  upon  Europe,  and 
that  the  "Middle  Kingdom”  really  ceased  to  be  what  it  had 
so  long  been — a more  than  half  fabulous  country. 

AREA  AND  POPULATION 

Hitherto  the  population  of  China,  it  is  believed,  has  been 
much  over-estimated ; a recent  estimate  of  the  population  of 
China  proper  will  be  found  below.  The  following  table 
gives  a statement  of  the  area  and  population  of  the  whole 
of  the  Chinese  Empire  according  to  the  latest  estimates ; 


80 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Area, 

English  sq.  miles.  Population. 


China  Proper 

Dependencies : 

386,000,000 

Manchuria 

7,500,000 

Mongolia 

2,000,000 

Tibet  

651,500 

6,000,000 

Jungaria  

147,950 

600,000 

East  Turkestan 

580,000 

Totals  

4218,401 

402,680,000 

According  to  official  data  referring  to  1842,  the  popula- 
tion of  the  18  provinces  of  China  Proper  and  Formosa  was 
413,000,000;  other  estimates  gave  350,000,000.  In  the  fol- 
lowing table  the  figures  with  a * are  from  Chinese  official 


data  for  1882;  those  with  a have  the  population  of  1879;  | 
Fukien  is  estimated  on  the  basis  of  the  census  of  1844.  ! 

Area,  English  Population  per  | 


Provinces — 

square  miles. 

Population,  square  mile. 

Chilhi** 

58,949 

17,937,000 

304 

Shantung* 

53,762 

36,247,835 

557 

Shansi* 

56,268 

12,211,453 

221 

Honan* 

22,115,827 

340 

Kiangsu* 

44,500 

20,905,171 

470 

Nganhwei 

20,596,288 

425 

Kiangsi** 

24,534,118 

340 

Chehkiang* 

39,150 

11,588,692 

296 

Fukien 

22,190,556 

574 

Hupeh* 

70,450 

34,244,685 

486 

Hunan* 

74,320 

21,002,604 

282 

Shensi** 

8,432,193 

126 

Kansu** 

. . 125,450 

9,285,377 

74 

Szechuen* 

67,712,897 

406 

Kwangtung  with  Hainan*.. 

79,456 

29,706,249 

377 

Kwangsi** 

5,151,327 

6S 

Kweichau* 

7,669,181 

118 

Yunnan** 

11,721,576 

108 

Totals 

383,253,029 

292 

GENERAL  SURVEY 


31 


The  Island  of  Formosa  was  ceded  to  Japan  in  accordance 
with  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  ratified  and  exchanged 
at  Chefoo  on  the  8th  of  May,  1895.  The  formal  transfer 
of  the  Island  was  effected  on  the  2nd  of  June,  1895. 

In  November,  1897,  the  Germans  seized  the  Port  of 
Kiaou-Chow,  on  the  east  coast  of  Shantung,  and  in  January, 
1898,  obtained  from  the  Chinese  a 99  years’  lease  of  the 
town,  harbor,  and  district.  By  agreement  with  the  Chinese 
government,  dated  March  27,  1898,  Russia  is  in  possession 
of  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan  and  their  adjacent  territories 
and  waters,  on  lease  for  the  term  of  25  years,  which  may 
be  extended  by  agreement.  Within  the  territories  and 
waters  leased,  Russia  has  sole  military  and  naval  control  and 
may  build  forts  and  barracks  as  she  desires.  Port  Arthur 
is  closed  to  all  vessels  except  Russian  and  Chinese  men-of- 
war;  part  of  Talienwan  harbor  is  reserved  exclusively  for 
Russian  and  Chinese  men-of-war,  but  the  remainder  is  freely 
open  to  merchant  vessels  of  all  countries.  To  the  north  is  a 
neutral  zone  where  Chinese  troops  shall  not  be  quartered 
except  with  the  consent  of  Russia.  The  territory  acquired 
here  by  Russia  has  been  formed  into  the  Russian  province 
of  Kwang  Tung.  For  such  period  as  Russia  may  hold  Port 
Arthur,  Great  Britain  is,  by  agreement  with  China,  April  2, 
1898,  to  hold  Wei-Hai-Wei,  in  the  province  of  Shantung. 
For  defensive  purposes  Great  Britain  has,  in  addition,  ob- 
tained a 99  years’  lease  of  territory  on  the  mainland  opposite 
the  island  of  Hongkong.  To  compensate  for  these  ad- 
vantages given  to  the  Russians,  British,  and  Germans,  the 
Chinese  Government  granted  to  the  French  in  April,  1898, 
a 99  years’  lease  of  the  Bay  of  Kwang-Chau-Wan,  on  the 
coast  of  the  Lien-Chow  peninsula,  opposite  the  Island  of 
Hainan.  In  November,  1899,  China  conceded  to  France  the 
possession  of  the  two  islands  commanding  the  entrance  of 


32 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


the  bay.  This  territory  has  been  placed  under  the  authority 
of  the  Governor-General  of  French  Indo-China. 

According  to  a return  of  the  Imperial  Customs  authori- 
ties, the  total  number  of  foreigners  resident  in  the  open 
ports  of  China  was  13,421  at  the  end  of  1898.  Among  them 
were  5,148  British  subjects,  2,056  Americans,  1,694  Japa- 
nese, 920  Frenchmen,  1,043  Germans,  1,082  Portuguese, 
395  Spaniards,  and  200  Swedes  and  Norwegians;  all  other 
nationalities  being  represented  by  very  few  members.  About 
one-half  of  the  total  number  of  foreigners  resided  at 
Shanghai.  The  French  municipality  at  that  town  entered 
on  the  extension  of  their  concession  on  March  i,  1900. 

RELIGION. 

Three  religions  are  acknowledged  by  the  Chinese  as 
indigenous  and  adopted,  viz. : Confucianism,  Buddhism,  and 
Taoism. 

The  Emperor  is  considered  the  sole  high  priest  of  the 
Empire,  and  can  alone,  with  his  immediate  representatives 
and  ministers,  perform  the  great  religious  ceremonies.  No 
eccleciastical  hierarchy  is  maintained  at  the  public  expense, 
nor  any  priesthood  attached  to  the  Confucian  religion.  The 
Confucian  is  the  state  religion,  if  the  respect  paid  to  the 
memory  of  the  great  teacher  can  be  called  religion  at  all. 
The  bulk  of  the  people,  however,  are  Buddhist.  There  are 
probably  about  30,000,000  Mohammedans,  chiefly  in  the 
northeast  and  southwest.  Roman  Catholicism  has  long  had 
a footing  in  China,  and  is  estimated  to  have  about  1,000,000 
adherents,  with  twenty-five  bishoprics  besides  those  of 
Manchuria,  Tibet,  Mongolia,  and  Korea.  Other  Christian 
societies  have  stations  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  the 
number  of  Protestant  adherents  being  estimated  at  50,000. 
Most  of  the  aboriginal  hill-tribes  are  still  nature-worship- 
ers, and  ethnically  are  distinct  from  the  prevailing  Mongo- 
loid population. 


CHINESE  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  II 

CHINESE  HISTORY  FROM  THEIR  OWN  RECORDS 

So  much  for  China  as  known  to  the  western  world.  Let 
us  now  glance  at  Chinese  history  as  described  in  the  tradi- 
tions and  literature  of  China  herself. 

In  the  beginning,  so  Chinese  writers  relate,  when  all  was 
darkness  and  confusion,  there  came  from  a vast  mundane 
egg,  which  divided  itself  into  two  parts,  a human  being,  who 
is  and  has  always  been  known  in  Chinese  annals  as  Poon-koo 
Wong.  Of  the  upper  portion  of  the  shell,  this  being  formed 
the  heavens,  and  of  the  lower  part  he  made  the  earth.  To 
dispel  the  darkness  by  which  all  was  enveloped  he  created 
with  his  right  hand  the  sun  to  rule  the  day,  and  with  his  left 
hand  the  moon  to  rule  the  night.  He  made  the  stars  also. 
Then  he  called  into  existence  the  five  elements  of  earth, 
water,  fire,  metal  and  wood.  Chinese  writers  say  also  that, 
in  order  to  people  the  earth,  Poon-koo  Wong  made  a cloud 
of  vapor  rise  from  a piece  of  gold,  and  a similar  cloud 
from  a piece  of  wood.  By  breathing  on  them  he  gave  to  the 
vapor  which  arose  from  the  gold,  a male  principle;  and  to 
that  which  ascended  from  the  wood,  a female  principle. 
From  the  union  of  these  two  clouds  or  spirits  sprang  a son 
and  daughter,  Ying  Yee  and  Cha-noee;  and  the  descendants 
of  this  pair  in  due  course  of  time  overspread  the  whole  coun- 
try. Thus,  according  to  Chinese  cosmogony,  came  into 
being  the  land  of  Han,  and  its  vast  population,  in  other 
words,  the  world  and  its  inhabitants.  In  honor  of  Poon-koo 


m THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

Wong  there  are  many  temples  throughout  China.  The  idol 
of  this  hero  of  antiquity  is  an  almost  nude  figure  made  of 
wood  or  clay.  Around  the  loins  is  a representation  of  an 
apron  of  leaves.  Such,  say  the  Chinese,  was  his  only  cover- 
ing, there  being  no  clothes  in  those  earliest  of  days. 

The  primordia  of  all  countries  are  enveloped  in  much 
that  is  obscure  and  fabulous,  and  it  is  extremely  difficult 
for  the  historian  to  fix  the  period  when  civil  history  had 
its  beginnings.  China  is  no  exception,  but  there  can,  we  think, 
be  no  doubt  of  the  great  antiquity  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
It  is  not,  we  believe,  rash  to  say  that  it  has  survived  a period 
of  4,000  years,  without  having  undergone  any  great  change 
either  in  the  laws  by  which  it  is  governed  or  in  the  speech, 
manners  and  customs  of  its  teeming  population.  It  is  gen- 
erally allowed  that  Celestial  observations  were  made  at 
Babylon  2,234  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  such 
observations  are  probably  the  strongest  evidence  which  any 
nation  can  produce  in  support  of  its  claim  to  antiquity. 
These  were  not  in  any  way  associated  with  the  history  of 
sublunary  events.  Those  made  by  the  Chinese,  on  the  con- 
trary, have  served  to  mark  the  events  of  their  national  his- 
tory. They  speak  of  an  eclipse  calculated  in  their  country 
2,155  years  before  Christ.  That  this  eclipse  really  took  place 
was  proved  by  the  calculations  of  the  missionaries  of  the 
order  of  Jesus,  who  visited  China  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Gaubil,  one  of  the  early  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  to 
China — a man  pre-eminently  distinguished  for  his  mathe- 
matical attainments — examined  a series  of  thirty-six 
eclipses  to  which  allusion  is  made  in  the  writings  of  Con- 
fucius. After  careful  examination  he  concluded  that  of 
these  thirty-six  eclipses  only  two  were  false,  and  two  un- 
certain. The  correctness  of  the  remaining  thirty-two,  he 
considered  established  beyond  all  reasonable  doubt.  Tin 
chronology  of  the  Chinese,  however,  extends  considerably 


CHINESE  HISTORY 


35 


beyond  the  first  of  these  eclipses,  and  is  substantiated  by 
satisfactory  evidence  as  far  back  as  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
peror Yaou.  From  the  time  of  this  sovereign,  the  history 
of  China  begins  to  assume  the  appearance  of  truth,  whereas 
the  account  of  preceding  reigns  is  clouded  with  fable  and 
uncertainty. 

It  was  an  ancient  belief  of  Chinese  writers  that  there 
had  existed  a period  of  2,267,000  and  odd  years  between 
the  time  when  the  powers  of  Heaven  and  Earth  first  united 
to  produce  man  as  the  possessor  of  the  soil  of  China,  and 
the  time  of  Confucius.  This  having  been  accepted  as  a fact, 
it  became  necessary  for  the  early  historians  to  invent  long 
lines  of  dynastic  rulers  to  fill  up  the  gap  between  the  crea- 
tion and  the  period  with  which  the  Book  of  Historical  Doc- 
uments commences.  Accordingly,  we  find  a series  of  ten 
epochs  described  as  preceding  the  Chow  dynasty.  The 
events  connected  with  most  of  these  are  purely  fabulous, 
and  it  is  not  until  we  come  down  to  the  eighth  period  that 
we  can  trace  any  glimmer,  however  obscured,  of  history. 
This,  we  are  told,  commenced  with  the  reign  of  Yew-chaou 
She  (the  Nest-having),  who,  if  such  a man  ever  existed,  was 
probably  one  of  the  first  of  those  who,  as  the  immigrants 
increased  and  multiplied,  was  chosen  to  direct  their  coun- 
sels and  to  lead  their  armies.  This  chief  induced  them  to 
settle  within  the  bend  of  the  Yellow  River,  the  site  of  the 
modern  province  of  Shansi,  and  taught  them  to  make  huts 
of  the  boughs  of  trees.  Under  the  next  chief,  Suy-jin  She 
(the  Fire-producer),  the  grand  discovery  of  fire  was  effected 
by  the  accidental  friction  of  two  pieces  of  dry  wood.  He 
taught  the  people  to  look  up  to  Teen,  the  great  creating, 
preserving,  and  destroying  power ; and  he  invented  a 
method  of  registering  time  and  events,  by  making  certain 

I knots  on  thongs  or  cords  twisted  out  of  the  bark  of  trees. 

I N^xt  to  him  followed  Yung-ching  She,  and  then  Fuh-he, 


36 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


who  separated  the  people  into  classes  or  tribes,  giving  to 
each  a particular  name,  discovered  iron,  appointed  certain 
days  to  show  their  gratitude  to  heaven,  by  offering  the 
first-fruits  of  the  earth,  and  invented  the  eight  diagrams 
which  serve  as  the  foundation  of  the  Yih-king.  Fuh-he 
reigned  1 15  years,  and  his  tomb  is  shown  at  Chin-choo,  in 
the  province  of  Shensi,  at  this  day.  His  successor,  Chin- 
nung,  invented  the  plow;  and  from  that  moment  the  civ- 
ilization of  China  proceeded  by  rapid  and  progressive  steps. 

As  the  early  history  of  every  ancient  people  is  more  or 
less  vitiated  by  fable,  we  ought  not  to  be  more  fastidious 
or  less  indulgent  toward  the  marvelous  in  that  of  China, 
than  we  are  toward  Egyptian,  Greek,  or  Roman  history. 
The  main  facts  may  be  true,  though  the  details  are  in- 
correct; and  though  the  accidental  discovery  of  fire  may 
not  have  happened  under  Suy-jin  She,  yet  it  probably  was 
first  communicated  by  the  friction  of  two  sticks,  which  at 
this  day  is  a common  method  among  almost  all  savages  of 
producing  fire.  Nor  is  it  perhaps  strictly  correct  that 
Fuh-he  made  the  accidental  discovery  of  iron,  by  having 
burnt  a quantity  of  wood  on  a brown  earth,  any  more  than 
that  the  Phoenicians  discovered  the  mode  of  making  glass 
by  burning  green  wood  on  sand;  yet  it  is  not  improbable 
that  some  such  processes  first  led  to  these  discoveries.  And 
if  it  be  objected  against  the  history,  that  the  reign  of  115 
years  exceeds  the  usual  period  of  human  existence,  this  after 
all  is  as  nothing,  when  compared  with  the  contemporaneous 
ones  recorded  in  biblical  history.  Thus,  also,  considerable 
allowances  are  to  be  deducted  from  the  scientific  discoveries 
of  Chin-nung  in  botany,  when  we  read  of  his  having  in 
one  day  discovered  no  less  than  seventy  different  species 
of  plants  that  were  of  a poisonous  nature,  and  seventy 
others  that  were  antidotes  against  their  baneful  effects. 

The  next  sovereign,  Hwang-te,  was  a usurper;  but 
during  his  reign  the  Chinese  are  stated  to  have  m.ade  a 


CHINESE  HISTORY 


very  rapid  progress  in  the  arts  and  conveniences  of  civilized 
life;  and  to  his  lady,  Se-ling-she,  is  ascribed  the  honor 
of  having  first  observed  the  silk  produced  by  the  worms, 
of  having  unraveled  their  cocoons,  and  of  having  worked 
the  fine  filaments  into  a web  of  cloth.  The  tomb  of  Hwang- 
te  is  also  preserved  to  this  day  in  the  province  of  Shensi. 

THE  TIME  OF  CONFUCIUS 

But  with  the  reign  of  Yaou  (2356  B.  C.)  we  emerge  to 
some  extent  from  the  mist  which  hangs  over  the  earlier 
records  of  China.  Here  Confucius  takes  up  the  strain, 
and  though  his  narrative  will  not  bear  criticism,  it  yet 
furnishes  us  with  some  historical  data.  The  character  of 
Yaou  and  his  successor  Shun  have  been  the  theme  of 
every  writer  on  history  from  the  time  of  Confucius  down- 
ward. So  strong  was  the  force  of  the  examples  they  set 
that  virtue  pervaded  the  land,  crime  was  unknown,  and  the 
nation  increased  in  size  and  prosperity.  During  the  reign 
of  Yaou  the  empire  extended  from  23°  to  40°  N.  lat., 
and  from  the  6th  degree  of  longitude  west  from  Pekin 
to  the  loth  degree  east.  He  established  his  capital  at 
Ke-choo  in  Shan-tung,  and  established  marts  and  fairs 
throughout  the  land.  After  his  death  he  was  succeeded 
by  Shun,  who  for  some  years  had  shared  with  him  the 
responsibilities  of  government.  It  was  during  this  period 
that  the  ‘'Great’’  Yu  was  employed  to  drain  off  the  waters 
of  the  flood  which  had  visited  the  north  of  China  in  con- 
sequence, probably,  of  one  of  the  numerous  changes  in  the 
course  of  the  Yellow  River.  This  work  he  accomplished 
after  having  expended  nine  years’  labor  upon  it,  and  as  a 
reward  for  this  and  other  services  he  was  raised  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  Shun.  After  him  succeeded  a 
■ number  of  rulers,  each  one  less  qualified  to  govern  than  the 
last,  until  one  Kee  (1818  B.  C.)  ascended  the  throne.  In 


38 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


this  man  were  combined  all  the  worst  vices  of  kings.  He 
was  licentious,  cruel,  faithless,  and  dissolute.  From  such 
a one  Heaven  withdrew  her  protection.  The  people  rose 
against  him,  and  having  swept  away  all  traces  of  him  and 
his  bloody  house,  they  proclaimed  the  commencement  of  a 
new  dynasty,  to  be  called  the  Shang  dynasty,  and  their 
leader,  Tang,  they  named  the  first  emperor  of  the  new  line 
(1766  B.  C.).  Aided  by  wise  counselors,  this  monarch 
restored  to  the  country  some  of  its  former  prosperity.  But 
the  same  fatality  which  attended  the  descendants  of  Yu 
overtook  also  his  successors.  They  became  self-indulgent 
and  effeminate.  They  lost  all  hold  on  the  affections  of  their 
people,  so  that  when  Chow,  aided  and  abetted  by  his 
consort  Ta-ke,  gave  vent  to  passions  of  a more  than  usually 
cruel  and  debased  nature,  they  revolted,  and  Woo-Wang 
ascended  the  throne  as  the  first  emperor  of  the  Chow 
dynasty.  Woo-Wang  was  all  that  tradition  represents  the 
founders  of  dynasties  to  have  been.  He  was  brave, 
talented,  and  virtuous,  but  he  committed  the  mistake  of 
dividing  his  kingdom  into  seventy-two  feudal  states  in 
order  that  he  might  bestow  principalities  on  his  own 
relations  and  the  descendants  of  former  emperors.  The 
fatal  result  of  this  subdivision  soon  became  obvious. 
Jealousies  sprang  up  among  the  princes,  internecine  wars 
raged  unceasingly,  and  the  allegiance  of  the  feudatories  to 
the  central  authority  became  daily  w’eakened.  Nor  were 
the  enemies  of  the  empire  confined  to  those  within  its 
borders,  for,  during  the  reign  of  Muh  Wang  (936  B.  C.)  we 
are  told  that  the  Tartars,  of  whom  we  now  hear  for  the  first 
time,  taking  advantage  of  the  confusion  which  reigned 
within  the  limits  of  the  empire,  made  predatory  incursions 
into  the  states,  and  though  they  were  invariably  driven  off, 
yet  from  this  time  they  remained  a constant  source  of 
danger  and  annoyance  to  the  Chinese.  Such  was  the  state 


CHINESE  HISTORY 


acted  a pledge  from  the  merchants  that  they  would  no  longer 
deal  in  the  drug.  On  the  3d  April,  20,283  chests  of  opium 
were  handed  over  to  the  mandarins  and  were  by  them 
destroyed — a sufficient  proof  that  they  were  in  earnest  in 
their  endeavors  to  suppress  the  traffic.  This  demand  of 
commissioner  Lin  was  considered  by  the  English  Govern- 
ment to  amount  tO'  a casus  belli,  and  in  1840  war  was 
declared.  In  the  same  year  the  fleet  captured  Chusan, 
and  in  the  following  year  the  Bogue  Forts  fell,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  operations  the  Chinese  agreed  to  cede 
Hongkong  to-  the  victors  and  to  pay  them  an  indemnity  of 
$6,000,000.  As  soon  as  this  news  reached  Pekin,  Ke 
Shen,  who  had  succeeded  commissioner  Lin,  was  dismissed 
from  his  post  and  degraded,  and  Yih  Shan,  another  Tartar, 
was  appointed  in  his  room.  * But  before  the  new  com- 
missioner reached  his  post,  Canton  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  and  shortly  afterwards  Amoy, 
Ningpo,  Tinghai  in  Chusan,  Chapoo,  Shanghai,  and  Chin- 
keang  Foo  shared  the  same  fate,  and  a like  evil  would  have 
happened  to  Nanking  had  not  the  Imperial  Government, 
dreading  the  loss  of  the  ‘'Southern  Capital,’’  proposed 
terms  of  peace.  After  much  discussion.  Sir  Henry  Pot- 
tinger,  who  had  succeeded  Captain  Elliot,  concluded,  in 
1842,  a treaty  with  the  imperial  commissioners,  by  which 
the  four  additional  ports  of  Amoy,  Fuh-choy-Foo,  Ningpo, 
and  Shanghai  were  declared  open  to  foreign  trade,  and  an 
indemnity  of  $21,000,000  was  to  be  paid  to  the  Eng- 
lish. Nor  was  the  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Taou-kwang 
more  fortunate  than  its  beginning;  the  empire  was  com- 
pletely disorganized,  rebellious  outbreaks  were  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  the  imperial  armies  were  powerless  to 
oppose  them.  So  complete  was  the  demoralization  of  the 
troops,  that  on  one  occasion  the  Meaou-tsze  or  hill  tribes  of 
Kwang-se  defeated  an  army  of  30,000  men  sent  against 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


them  by  the  viceroy  of  the  two  Kwangs,  In  1850,  while 
these  clouds  were  hanging  gloomily  over  the  land,  Taou- 
kwang  ‘^ascended  on  high,’’  and  Hien-fung,  his  son,  reigned 
in  his  stead. 

A cry  was  now  raised  for  the  reforms  which  had  been 
hoped  for  under  Taou-kwang,  but  Hien-fung  possessed  in 
an  exaggerated  form  the  selfish  and  tyrannical  nature  of 
his  father,  together  with  a voluptuary’s  craving  for  every 
kind  of  sensual  pleasure,  and  he  lived  to  reap  as  he  had 
sown.  For  some  time  Kwang-se  had  been  in  a very 
disturbed  state,  and  when,  on  the  accession  of  the  new 
emperor,  the  people  found  that  no  relief  from  the  oppres- 
sion they  endured  was  to  be  given  them,  they  broke  out 
into  open  revolt  and  proclaimed  a youth,  who  was  said  to 
be  the  representative  of  the  last  emperor  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  as  emperor,  under  the  title  of  Tien-tih  or 
‘'Heavenly  Virtue.”  From  Kwang-si  the  flames  spread 
into  Hoo-pih  and  Hoo-nan,  and  then  languished  from 
want  of  a leader  and  a definite  political  cry.  Just  at  the 
moment,  however,  when  there  appeared  to  be  a possibility 
that,  by  force  of  arms  and  the  persuasive  influence  of 
money,  the  imperialists  would  re-establish  their  supre- 
macy, a leader  presented  himself  in  Kwang-si,  whose 
energy  of  character,  combined  with  great  political  and 
religious  enthusiasm,  speedily  gained  for  him  the  suffrages 
of  the  discontented.  This  was  Hung  Sew-tseuen.  Seizing 
on  the  popular  longing  for  the  return  of  a Chinese  dynasty 
he  proclaimed  himself  as  sent  by  heaven  to  drive  out  the 
Tartars,  and  to  restore  in  his  own  person  the  succession  to 
China.  At  the  same  time  having  been  converted  to 
Christianity,  and  professing  to  abhor  the  vices  and  sins  of 
the  age,  he  called  on  all  the  virtuous  of  the  land  to 
extirpate  rulers  who,  both  in  their  public  laws  and  in  their 
private  acts,  were  standing  examples  of  all  that  was  base 


CHINESE  HISTORY 


43 


and  vile  in  human  nature.  Crowds  soon  flocked  to  his 
standard.  Tien-tih  was  deserted;  and,  putting  himself 
at  the  head  of  his  followers,  Hung  Sew-tseuen  marched 
northwards  into  Hoo-nan  and  Hoo-pih,  overthrowing  every 
force  which  was  sent  to  oppose  him.  The  first  city  of 
importance  which  fell  into  his  hands  was  Woo-chang  Foo 
on  the  Yangtse-kiang,  the  capital  of  Hoo-pih.  Situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Han  River  with  the  Yangtse- 
kiang,  this  city  was  a point  of  great  strategical  importance. 
But  Hung  Sew-tseuen  was  not  inclined  to  rest  upon  his 
laurels,  knowing  full  well  that  he  must  be  able  to  call 
Nanking  his  before  there  would  be  any  chance  that  his 
dreams  of  empire  could  be  realized.  Having  made  Woo- 
chang  secure,  he  therefore  moved  down  the  river,  and  after 
taking  Gan-king  on  his  way  he  proceeded  to  the  attack  of 
Nanking.  So  widespread  was  the  disaffection  at  this 
time  throughout  the  country  that  the  city  was  ripe  for 
falling,  and  without  much  difficulty  Hung  Sew-tseuen  in 
1852  established  himself  within  its  walls,  and  proclaimed 
the  inauguration  of  the  Tai-ping  dynasty,  of  which  he 
nominated  himself  the  first  emperor  under  the  title  of  Tien 
Wang  or  '‘Heavenly  king.'’  For  the  next  few  years  it 
appeared  as  though  he  had  nailed  the  flag  of  victory  to  his 
staff.  His  armies  penetrated  victoriously  as  far  north  as 
Tien-tsin  and  as  far  east  as  Chin-kiang  and  Soochow,  while 
bands  of  syirpathizers  with  his  cause  appeared  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Amoy.  As  if  still  further  to  aid  and  abet 
him  in  his  schemes,  England  declared  war  against  the 
Tartar  dynasty  in  1857,  consequence  of  an  outrage  known 
as  the  “Arrow"  affair.  In  December  of  the  same  year 
Canton  was  taken  by  an  English  force  under  Sir  Michael 
Seymour  and  General  Straubenzee,  and  a still  further  blow 
was  struck  against  the  prestige  of  the  ruling  government 
by  the  determination  arrived  at  by  Lord  Elgin,  who  had 


44 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


been  sent  out  as  special  ambassador,  to  go  to  Pekin  and 
communicate  directly  with  the  emperor.  In  May,  1858, 
the  Taku  Forts  were  taken,  and  the  way  having  thus 
been  cleared  of  obstacles.  Lord  Elgin  went  up  the  Peiho  to 
Tien-tsin  en  route  for  the  capital.  At  Tien-tsin,  however,  he 
was  met  by  the  imperial  commissioners,  who  persuaded 
him  so  far  to  alter  his  plans  as  to  conclude  a treaty  with 
them  on  the  spot,  which  treaty  it  was  agreed  should  be 
ratified  at  Pekin  in  the  following  year.  When,  however, 
Sir  Frederick  Bruce,  who  had  been  in  the  meanwhile 
appointed  minister  to  the  court  of  Pekin,  attempted  to 
pass  Taku  to  carry  out  this  part  of  the  arrangement,  the 
vessels  escorting  him  were  fired  on  from  the  forts  with 
such  precision  and  persistency  that  he  was  compelled  to 
return  to  Shanghai  to  await  the  arrival  of  a larger  force  than 
that  which  he  then  had  at  his  command.  As  soon  as  news 
of  this  defeat  reached  England  Lord  Elgin  was  again  sent 
out  with  full  powers,  and  accompanied  by  a large  force 
under  the  command  of  Sir  Hope  Grant.  The  French 
likewise  took  part  in  the  campaign,  and  on  August  i, 
i860,  the  allies  landed  without  meeting  with  any  opposition 
at  Peh-tang,  a village  twelve  miles  north  of  Taku.  A 
few  days  later  the  forts  at  that  place  which  had  bid 
defiance  to  Sir  Frederick  Bruce  twelve  months  previously 
were  taken,  and  from  thence  the  allies  marched  to  Pekin. 
Finding  further  resistance  to  be  hopeless,  the  Chinese 
opened  negotiations,  and  as  a guarantee  of  their  good  faith 
surrendered  the  An-ting  gate  of  the  capital  to  the  allies. 
On  the  24th  of  October  the  treaty  of  1858  was  ratified  by 
Prince  King  and  Lord  Elgin,  and  a convention  was  sighed 
under  the  terms  of  which  the  Chinese  agreed  to  pay  a war 
indemnity  of  8,000,000  taels.  The  Emperor  Hien-fung 
did  not  have  long  to  see  the  results  of  his  new  relations 
with  the  hated  foreigner,  but  died  in  the  summer  of  the 


CHINESE  HISTORY 

following  year,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  son  Tung-chi,  a 
child  of  five  years  old. 

The  conclusion  of  peace  with  the  allies  was  the  signal 
for  a renewal  of  the  campaign  against  the  Tai-pings, 
and  benefiting  by  the  friendly  feelings  of  the  English 
authorities  engendered  by  the  return  of  amicable  relations, 
the  Chinese  government  succeeded  in  enlisting  Major 
Gordon  of  the  Royal  Engineers  in  their  service.  In  a 
surprisingly  short  space  of  time  this  officer  formed  the 
troops,  which  had  formerly  been  under  the  command  of  an 
American  named  Ward,  into  a formidable  army,  and  with- 
out delay  took  the  field  against  the  rebels.  From  that  day 
the  fortunes  of  the  Tai-pings  declined.  They  lost  city  after 
city,  and  finally,  in  July,  1864,  the  Imperialists,  after  an 
interval  of  twelve  years,  once  more  gained  possession  of 
Nanking.  Tien  Wang  did  not  survive  the  capture  of  his 
capital,  and  with  him  fell  his  cause.  Those  of  his 
followers  who  escaped  the  sword  of  the  victors  dispersed 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  Tai-pings  ceased  to  be. 

With  the  measure  of  peace  which  was  then  restored  to 
the  country  trade  rapidly  revived,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  province  of  Yun-nan,  where  the  Mahometan  rebels 
under  Suleiman  still  kept  the  imperial  forces  at  bay, 
prosperity  was  everywhere  re-awakened.  Against  these  foes 
the  government  was  careless  to  take  any  active  measures, 
until  in  1872  Prince  Hassan,  the  adopted  son  of  Suleiman, 
was  sent  on  a mission  to  England  with  the  object  of  gain- 
ing the  recognition  of  the  Queen  for  his  father's  govern- 
ment. This  step  at  once  aroused  the  susceptibilities  of 
the  Imperial  Government,  and  a large  force  was  instantly 
organized  and  despatched  to  the  scene  of  the  rebellion. 
The  war  was  now  pushed  on  with  vigor,  and  before  the 
year  was  out  the  Mahometan  capital  Ta-le  Foo  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Imperialists,  and  the  followers  of  Suleiman  at 

i 


46 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


that  place  and  throughout  the  province  were  mercilessly 
exterminated.  In  the  succeeding  February  the  Regents — 
i.e.,  the  dowager-empresses,  who  had  governed  the  country 
since  the  death  of  Hien-fung — resigned  their  powers  into 
the  hands  of  the  emperor.  This  long-expected  time  was 
seized  upon  by  the  foreign  ministers  to  urge  their  right  of 
audience  with  the  emperor,  and  on  the  29th  of  June,  1873, 
the  privilege  of  gazing  on  the  ^'sacred  countenance'’  was 
accorded  to  them.  From  that  time  until  his  death  from 
smallpox  on  the  12th  of  January,  1875,  Tung-chi's  name 
fails  to  appear  in  connection  with  any  public  act  of  import- 
ance. 

THE  PRESENT  IMPERIAL  FAMILY 

The  Emperor  Tung-chi  having  died  without  issue,  the 
succession  to  the  throne,  for  the  first  time  in  the  annals 
of  the  Tsing  dynasty,  passed  out  of  the  direct  line,  and  a 
cousin  of  the  deceased  emperor,  a princeling,  said  to  be  not 
quite  four  years  old,  was  chosen  to  reign  in  his  room,  under 
the  title  of  Kwang-seu  or  “Succession  of  Glory." 

Usually  the  emperor  appoints  his  successor  from  among 
the  members  of  his  own  family  in  the  next  younger  genera- 
tion. In  the  present  case,  however,  as  Tung-chi  failed  to 
make  an  appointment,  the  Empress  Dowager,  Tszu-Hszi 
(born  November  17,  1834),  widow  of  the  Emperor  Hien- 
Fung,  predecessor  and  father  of  Tung-chi,  in  concert  with 
Prince  Chun,  arranged  the  appointment  of  Kwang-seu, 
infant  son  of  Prince  Chun. 

Tsait'ien  Kwang-seu,  son  of  Prince  Chun,  seventh 
brother  of  the  Emperor  Hien-Fung,  was  born  August  2, 
1872,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  proclamation  January 
22,  1875.  He  was  married  February  26,  1889. 

Having  become  of  age,  the  young  emperor  nominally 

assumed  government  in  March,  1887.  In  February,  1889, 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  CHINA 


47 


he  undertook  the  full  control,  but  on  September  22,  1898, 
an  imperial  edict  was  issued  announcing  that  the  Emperor 
had  resigned  power  to  the  Empress  Dowager,  who  has 
since  retained  the  direction  of  affairs.  On  January  24,  1900, 
it  was  declared  by  decree  that  Kuk  Wei  (whose  official 
name  is  Pu  Tsing),  son  of  the  Prince  of  Tuan,  was  successor 
of  Tung-chi.  Pu  Tsing  is  only  14  years  of  age,  and  his 
succession  is  regarded  as  equivalent  to  Kwang-seu’s  depo- 
sition. 


CHAPTER  HI 

RECENT  EVENTS  IN  CHINA 
LI  HUNG  CHANG 

The  modern  development  of  China  is  due  more  to  Li 
Hung  Chang  than  to  any  other  single  agency.  He  is  im- 
mensely wealthy  and  has  held  nearly  every  post  of  honor 
that  China  could  give  him,  though  likewise  at  irregular  in- 
tervals, he  has  been  deprived  of  all  position  and  power,  his 
'‘yellow  jacket’'  has  been  taken  from  him,  and  his  head 
has  been  in  danger.  He  was  born  in  1819  of  pure  Chinese 
blood.  In  three  successive  literary  examinations  he  stood 
first,  and  in  1847  was  enrolled  in  the  Hanlin  or  Imperial 
Academy,  the  highest  literary  degree  in  the  empire.  He 
was  an  official  in  the  Imperial  printing-office  when  the  Tai- 
ping  Rebellion  broke  out.  In  this  war  he  became  promi- 
nent, and  was  appointed  governor  of  Kiang-su. 

He  immediately  saw  the  value  of  European  military 
organization  and  equipment,  and  formed  the  "Ever  Vic- 
torious Force,”  a Chinese  corps  armed,  drilled,  and  disci- 
plined according  to  European  fashion,  first  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  American,  Ward,  and  then  of  the  celebrated 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Gordon.  Henceforth  Li  threw  all  his  force  and  influence 
into  the  adoption  in  China  of  Western  arts’  and  sciences. 
In  1870  he  was  made  viceroy  of  Chihli,*  the  province  in 
which  Pekin  is  located.  In  1872  he  had  thirty  Chinese  boys 
sent  to  the  United  States  to  be  educated,  and  established 
a college  in  Pekin,  under  Dr.  W.  H.  P.  Martin. 

In  1880  he  took  advantage  of  the  Russian  war  scare  to 
improve  the  army  and  navy  and  establish  the  telegraph, 
which  now  comprises  a network  of  over  10,000  miles.  Sim- 
ultaneously he  worked  for  railroads.  A short  line  had  been 
built  in  1876  from  Shanghai  to  Woosung,  but  this  was 
bought  and  dismantled  the  next  year  by  the  Government. 
Li  maintained,  however,  the  agitation  for  railways  until  in 
1888  an  active  beginning  was  made,  and  the  work  has  gone 
steadily  on  ever  since. 

In  1877  he  bought  four  ironclads  just  built  in  England 
for  the  royal  navy,  and  so  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present 
Chinese  modern  navy.  He  had  likewise  so  cleverly  man- 
aged diplomatic  relations  with  France  after  their  nominal 
victory  in  the  war  of  i884-’85  over  Formosa,  that  China 
got  decidedly  the  best  of  it  in  the  net  result. 

Under  his  encouragement  joint-stock  companies  have 
been  organized  for  various  industrial  enterprises,  such  as 
silk,  cotton,  woolen,  glass,  and  iron  manufactures. 

Yet  Li  Hung  Chang  belongs  to  the  native  party  and  is 
ready  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  foreign  nations  with 
all  the  arts  of  diplomacy  at  his  command.  Reform  in  China 
is  a very  slow  and  difficult  matter.  The  mass  of  the 
Chinese  people  do  not  want  European  civilization,  do  not 
want  Christian  methods,  do  not  want  foreigners  on  their 
soil ; and  from  time  to  time  anti-foreign  outbreaks  are  sure 
to  occur.  In  1891  there  was  a serious  uprising,  afterwards 
traced  to  influential  scholars,  and  even  officials;  and  the 


*Or  Pi-chi-li. 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  CHINA 


49 


violent  and  scurrilous  pamphlets  and  placards  distributed 
were  written  by  literati  of  rank.  The  same  outbreak  was 
revived  in  1893,  the  recent  uprising  of  the  '‘Boxers”  is 
but  another  form  of  the  old  hatred  of  the  Christian  and  the 
foreigner. 

The  word  "Boxer”  is  a free  English  translation  of  the 
name  of  a recently  formed  Chinese  society.  The  Chinese 
minister  at  Washington  recently  said  (1900)  that  he  had 
previously  known  nothing  of  this  society,  but  that  the 
name  of  the  organization  as  given  in  the  Chinese  papers 
meant  "Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Harmony,  Righteous- 
ness, and  Athletics.”  Evidently  the  "athletic”  character 
has  quite  overshadowed  any  "harmony”  and  "righteous- 
ness” there  may  have  been  in  the  beginning. 

THE  JAPANESE-CHINESE  WAR 

Korea,  a small  peninsula  extending  south  from  Man- 
churia, was  for  a few  hundred  years  prior  to  641  A.  D. 
tributary  to  Japan,  and  though  the  Chinese  have  claimed 
suzerainty  since  2,000  B.  C.,  the  Japanese  have  from  time 
to  time  attempted  to  regain  their  rights.  Most  of  the 
business  men  and  bankers  are  Japanese,  and  so  is  the  great 
majority  of  the  foreign  population.  Consequently  two 
parties  grew  up  in  Korea,  one  favoring  the  control  of 
Japan,  and  one  hating  all  forms  of  Western  art  and  culture 
(for  which  Japan  now  stands  in  the  East). 

In  1877  China  annexed  a desolate  neutral  strip,  60  miles 
wide,  on  the  west,  and  Japan  by  a naval  demonstration 
secured  a treaty  in  which  both  China  and  Japan  recognized 
the  complete  independence  of  Korea.  In  the  meantime 
Queen  Cho,  devoted  to  Chinese  interests,  had  come  into 
power  in  the  Korean  royal  family.  In  1882  Japan  estab- 
lished a military  guard  in  Korea  to  protect  its  legation 


50 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


from  attack.  In  1894  ^ rebellion  broke  out  in  the  province 
of  Chulla,  and  King  Li  Hi  called  on  China  for  assistance. 
Li  Hung  Chang  sent  2,000  men,  but  Japan  protested  that 
this  was  a violation  of  the  treaty. 

Plotting  and  counter-plotting,  intrigue  and  murder  soon 
became  rampant,  and  both  sides  were  ready  for  war. 
When  war  appeared  inevitable  Russia  declared  she  would 
not  permit  any  acquisition  of  territory  in  Korea,  and  the 
United  States,  being  bound  by  a special  treaty,  attempted 
mediation.  The  British  government  also  took  steps  to  avert 
the  war,  but  in  vain.  None  of  the  powers  was  prepared 
for  forcible  intervention. 

On  July  20,  1894,  the  Chinese  government,  having 
chartered  transports  from  the  British,  embarked  12,000 
troops  for  Korea  and  they  set  sail  from  Taku.  Most  of 
these  troops  had  been  disembarked  at  Asan  when  the  Jap- 
anese squadron  appeared.  Though  the  transport  ''Kow 
Shing’’  was  officered  by  Englishmen  and  flew  the  British 
flag,  the  Japanese  forced  the  English  off,  and  sunk  the 
transport  with  1,700  Chinese  soldiers  on  board,  after  a sharp 
engagement. 

The  same  day  another  engagement  was  fought  off 
Fontao  Island.  Other  encounters  followed.  On  July  31 
the  Japanese  government  declared  that  a state  of  war  ex- 
isted between  China  and  Japan.  China  issued  a similar  dec- 
laration. 

The  whole  burden  of  the  war  fell  upon  Li  Hung  Chang, 
who  had  made  every  effort  to  avoid  hostilities.  He  appealed 
to  Russia  and  England  in  vain,  and  the  viceroys  and  gov- 
ernors of  the  various  provinces  of  China  itself  refused  aid. 
His  army  was  strong,  but  not  one-quarter  as  strong  as  the 
national  army  of  Japan.  His  fleet  was  larger  than  that  of 
Japan,  but  far  inferior  in  organization.  It  was  also  crip- 
pled by  the  resignation  of  all  the  Scotch  and  English  engi- 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  CHINA 


51 


neers.  He  could  not  raise  money,  as  the  men  of  wealth 
refused  to  take  a loan  of  even  1,000,000  yen,  whereas  the 
Japanese  raised  30,000,000  yen  by  patriotic  subscription 
at  once. 

The  Japanese  threw  more  than  40,000  troops  into  Korea, 
and  the  Chinese  prepared  an  invasion  from  the  north  with 

30.000.  General  Oshima  commanded  the  Japanese.  On 
September  16  a great  battle  was  fought  near  the  city  of 
Ping  Yang,  the  Japanese  numbering  40,000,  the  Chinese 

20.000.  The  result  was  a panic  for  the  Chinese,  only  5,000 
trained  troops  of  Li  Hung  Chang's  army  standing  their 
ground.  They  fought  till  all  were  slain.  The  total  Chinese 
loss  in  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners  was  16,000,  while  the 
loss  of  the  Japanese  was  30  killed  and  270  wounded. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  YALU  RIVER 

The  next  day,  the  Japanese  fleet  came  upon  the  Chinese 
fleet  under  Admiral  Ting  in  the  Yalu  River,  and  a terrible 
naval  battle  followed.  Ten  of  the  finest  cruisers  and  battle- 
ships were  drawn  up  by  the  Chinese  admiral  in  such  a 
way  as  to  protect  his  fleet  of  transports,  and  he  had  a 
second  line  of  two  cruisers  and  four  torpedo  boats.  The 
Japanese  fleet  advanced  and  maneuvered  at  full  speed,  form- 
ing a column  composed  of  nine  cruisers  as  the  fighting  line, 
and  three  gunboats  and  five  torpedo  boats  as  a second  line. 

The  result  was  a complete  victory  for  the  Japanese. 
Some  of  the  Chinese  ships  deserted  with  their  cowardly 
captains ; others  were  burned  and  sunk,  or  run  aground. 
The  remnant  of  the  Chinese  fleet  finally  made  for  Port 
Arthur,  where  most  of  the  vessels  were  laid  up  for  repairs 
till  another  year.  The  battle  was  fierce  in  the  extreme, 
lasting  from  one  o'clock  until  dusk,  and  the  Japanese  fleet 
was  so  battered  it  was  unable  to  follow  up  its  victory,  and 
tinder  cover  of  night  drew  off, 


52 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


With  the  destruction  of  the  Chinese  army  in  Korea, 
Marshal  Yamagata  prepared  to  lead  the  Japanese  forces  in 
an  invasion  of  Manchuria,  which  was  successfully  carried 
out  in  October. 

THE  CAPTURE  OF  PORT  ARTHUR 

Early  in  September  another  army  was  collected  by  the 
Japanese  under  the  personal  direction  of  the  Emperor  as 
commander-in-chief,  and  with  this  they  planned  an  attack 
on  Port  Arthur.  On  November  6 Talienwan  was  attacked 
and  captured,  and  on  November  22  the  sea  forts  of  Port 
Arthur  fell  before  the  Japanese.  The  Chinese  generals 
escaped  early,  and  the  troops,  utterly  demoralized,  fled  in 
disorder.  About  18,000  troops  were  engaged  on  each  side. 
The  Japanese  lost  250  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  Chinese 
about  2,000.  A vast  supply  of  rice  and  coal,  as  well  as 
the  dockyard  and  arsenal  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Japa- 
nese. Also  various  vessels  undergoing  repairs  after  the 
Yalu  fight  were  put  in  order  and  used  against  their  former 
owners. 

THE  CAPTURE  OF  WEI  HAI  WEI 

In  the  second  week  of  January,  1895,  a third  Japanese 
army,  numbering  25,000,  proceeded  against  Wei-Hai-Wei. 
A regular  siege  was  established.  After  various  encounters, 
in  which  the  Chinese  got  the  worst  of  it  and  one  of  their 
commanders  committed  suicide,  the  Japanese  entered  the 
town  February  2,  to  find  it  deserted.  The  harbor  still  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  Admiral  Ting.  His  position  became 
untenable  after  the  retreat  of  the  army,  however,  and  on 
February  12  he  surrendered  his  entire  fleet  to  Admiral  Ito, 
and  after  writing  a second  letter  asking  that  the  date  of 
surrender  be  postponed  to  February  16,  committed  suicide 


RECENT  EVENTS  IN  CHINA 


53 


by  poisoning.  His  example  was  followed  by  General  Chang, 
commander  of  the  military  garrison,  and  by  Commodore 
Liu.  Admiral  Ito  restored  one  of  the  Chinese  vessels  in 
order  that  the  bodies  might  be  carried  home  in  state,  and 
as  it  steamed  away  the  Japanese  ships  fired  a salute  of  honor 
to  the  brave  commander. 

A movement  was  now  organized  by  General  Nodzu 
against  Niuchang,  which  fell  into  Japanese  hands  March  4. 
Ying-Kow,  the  fort,  was  captured  March  6 with  trifling 
loss,  and  General  Nodzu  advanced  on  Thien-Chuang-Thai, 
which  was  burned  to  the  ground. 

PEACE 

The  time  for  peace  had  now  arrived.  Li  Hung  Chang 
was  stripped  of  all  his  honors  and  offices,  except  the  vice- 
royalty of  Chihli ; but  as  no  one  else  could  negotiate  so  well 
with  a foreign  government,  the  Empress  had  to  resort  to 
him  again,  and  he,  on  the  Chinese  side,  virtually  negotiated 
the  treaty  of  Shimoneski,  signed  by  him  on  April  17. 

This  treaty  was  full  of  hard  terms,  but  Li  reluctantly 
yielded  tO’  the  Japanese  demand.  The  independence  of. 
Korea  was  guaranteed  by  China ; the  southern  part  of  the 
province  of  Feng-Tien,  including  Port  Arthur  with  all  its 
docks  and  arsenals,  and  the  island  of  Formosa  and  the 
Pescadore  group,  were  ceded  to  Japan ; China  was  to  pay 
an  indemnity  of  200,000,000  kuping  taels,  50,000,000  in 
i six  months,  and  the  balance  in  seven  equal  installments 
within  three  years;  certain  ports  were  to  be  opened  and 
minor  rights  and  privileges  were  granted.  Wei-Hai-Wei 
was  held  as  a guarantee  until  the  indemnity  should  be  paid. 

^ Li  Hung  Chang  was  again  deprived  of  most  of  his 
offices,  and  did  not  return  to  Pekin,  but  the  treaty  was 
' ratified. 


54 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


THE  GAME  OF  GRAB 

On  April  23  the  Russian,  French,  and  German  min- 
isters at  Tokio  protested  against  the  cession  of  the  Liao- 
Tung  peninsula  and  Port  Arthur,  as  Japanese  possession 
would  be  a menace  to  Pekin.  As  Japan  could  not 
go  to  war,  she  yielded. 

A period  of  quiet  followed  the  Japanese  war,  and  in 
1896  Li  Hung  Chang  made  a visit  in  state  to  Europe  and 
America. 

In  1898  the  last  installment  of  the  indemnity  fell  due, 
and  China  applied  to  the  British,  Russian,  and  other  gov- 
ernments for  a loan.  In  vain ! The  powers  could  not  agree 
among  themselves  as  to  who  should  have  the  spoils.  At 
length,  however,  a loan  of  16,000,000  pounds  sterling  was 
arranged  with  the  Shanghai  and  Hongkong  Banking  Cor- 
poration and  the  German  Asiatic  Bank,  to  be  taken  at  90 
and  pay  per  cent  interest,  redeemable  in  45  years  by 
means  of  a sinking  fund,  and  secured  by  the  unpledged 
customs  and  certain  ‘dikin’’  taxes.  The  Japanese  govern- 
ment took  £2,000,000  of  the  new  loan. 

Russia  had  long  wanted  a terminal  port  for  her 
Trans-Siberian  railway  that  would  be  free  of  ice  in  the 
winter,  and  now  demanded  a lease  of  Port  Arthur  and  Ta- 
lienwan,  which  she  secured.  England  objected,  but  was 
pacified  by  receiving  a lease  of  Wei-Hai-Wei  upon  the 
Japanese  evacuation.  France  at  once  demanded  a lease  of 
a bay  on  the  southern  coast  of  China,  a concession  for  a 
railway,  and  other  privileges.  Germany  had  already  taken 
advantage  of  the  murder  of  some  missionaries  to  secure  a 
lease  of  Kiao-Chow  and  a concession  for  a railroad.  The 
limits  of  Hongkong  were  also  extended  at  this  time. 

RISING  OF  THE  BOXERS 

Peace  seemed  restored  at  length,  but  it  was  not  to  last 
long.  The  conservative,  slow-thinking,  superstitious 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  55 


masses  of  China  had  been  stirred  up,  and  rebellion  threat- 
ened the  northern  provinces.  In  May,  1900,  the  world  was 
astonished  at  hearing  news  of  an  insurrection  fomented  by 
a society  known  as  the  ‘‘Boxers,’’  who  attacked  and  burned 
most  of  the  legations  in  Pekin,  killed  the  Japanese  chan- 
cellor of  legation  and  the  German  minister^  Von  Ketteler, 
and  hundreds  of  the  Chinese  servants  of  foreigners  and 
Chinese  converts  to  Christianity.  Troops  were  landed  by 
the  United  States,  Russia,  Germany,  England,  Japan  and 
France  at  Tien-tsin,  and  an  expedition  sent  under  Admiral 
Seymour  for  the  relief  of  the  legations  at  Pekin.  The 
Chinese  troops  joined  the  rebels,  and  Admiral  Seymour 
was  forced  back.  In  the  meantime  the  Chinese  forts  at 
Taku  had  fired  on  the  allied  fleet,  but  were  captured  after  a 
sharp  battle.  All  these  events  are  thought  to  portend  the 
final  fall  of  the  Chinese  empire. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CHINESE  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

The  Chinese  language  is  the  chief  among  that  small 
class  of  languages  which  includes  the  Tibetan,  Cochin- 
Chinese,  Burmese,  Korean,  and  Chinese,  and  which  is 
usually  described  as  monosyllabic.  It  is  language  in  its 
most  archaic  form.  Every  word  is  a root,  and  every  root 
is  a word.  It  is  without  inflection  or  even  agglutination; 
its  substantives  are  indeclinable,  and  its  verbs  are  not  to 
be  conjugated ; it  is  destitute  of  an  alphabet,  and  finds  its 
expression  on  paper  in  thousands  of  distinct  symbols. 

It  is  then  a language  of  monosyllabic  roots,  which,  as 
regards  the  written  character,  has  been  checked  in  its 
growth  and  crystallized  in  its  most  ancient  form  by  the 


^6  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

early  occurrence  of  a period  of  great  literary  activity,  of 
which  the  nation  is  proud,  and  to  the  productions  of  which 
every  Chinaman  even  of  the  present  day  looks  back  as 
containing  the  true  standards  of  literary  excellence. 

THE  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE 

But  in  treating  of  the  two  branches  into  which  Chinese 
naturally  divides  itself,  namely,  the  written  medium  or 
characters  and  the  spoken  medium  or  sounds,  we  propose 
to  begin  with  the  former.  And  in  following  this  course 
we  shall  be  doing  no  violence  to  the  language,  for  it  would 
be  quite  possible  to  separate  the  characters  from  the  sounds, 
and  to  treat  them  as  two  languages,  as  indeed  has  already 
been  partly  done  in  Japan,  where  the  Chinese  characters 
were  at  one  time  in  general  use  as  representing  the  phonetic 
value  of  their  Japanese  equivalents.  Beginning  at  the 
other  end,  but  with  a similar  ultimate  result,  various 
members  of  the  missionary  body  have  published  text-books 
and  dictionaries  in  Romanized  Chinese,  that  is  to  say,  they 
have  avoided  the  use  of  the  characters  by  transcribing  the 
sounds  of  the  language  in  Roman  letters.  But  since, 
though  the  characters  are  rich  and  copious  to  a degree,  the 
sounds  are  out  of  all  proportion  poor,  this  last  dismember- 
ment presents  the  language  in  a very  denuded  form,  and 
is  at  the  same  time  attended  with  difficulties  which  only 
the  most  sanguine  can  hope  to  see  overcome.  The  neces- 
sity of  distinguishing  between  words  having  the  same  sound 
can  only  be  met  by  the  adoption  of  distinct  diacritical  marks 
for  each  word ; and  as  one  sound  often  represents  as  many 
as  a hundred  words,  such  a system  cannot  but  be  attended 
with  confusion. 

The  characters  of  the  language  form  the  medium  which 
speaks  to  the  eye,  and  may  be  described  as  the  equivalents 
of  the  written  words  of  other  languages ; but  unlike  these. 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


.^eived  another  severe  flogging  for  declaring  that  he  was 
unable  to  give  any  evidence,  the  old  man  also  died  in  prison. 

All  foreigners  who  resided  in  Canton  during  the  period 
that  it  was  in  the  occupation  of  the  allies,  can  certainly 
bear  ample  testimony  to  the  praiseworthy  manner  in  which 
the  Allied  Commissioners  exerted  themselves  to  put  a stop 
to  the  cruelties  practiced  by  the  mandarins  both  in  their 
prisons  and  courts  of  law.  These  establishments  were  vis- 
ited daily  by  European  policemen,  whose  duty  was  to  report 
lD'  the  Allied  Commissioners  whether  the  mandarins  were 
■laxing  or  not  in  the  severity  of  their  treatment  towards 
■le  prisoners  under  their  charge.  On  one  occasion  it  hap- 
pened that  the  chief  magistrate  of  the  district  of  Punyu,  who 
had  frequently  been  warned  to  abandon  the  practice  of  tor- 
ture, was  caught  by  the  European  inspectors  in  the  very  act 
ii  inflicting  a very  severe  punishment  upon  three  prisoners, 
' o had  attempted  to  break  out  of  jail  on  the  preceding  day. 
was  arrested  and  brought  into  the  presence  of  the  Allied 
mmissioners,  who  sentenced  him  to  undergo  an  impris- 
ent  of  forty  days.  The  officials  and  gentry  of  Canton, 
dignant  that  one  of  themselves  should  be  degraded  and 
nished  by  foreign  rulers,  endeavored  to  stir  up  the  people 
jo  revolt.  The  Allied  Commissioners  hearing  of  the  move- 
lent,  published  without  delay  the  following  excellent  proc- 
■ ation : — 

'CLAMATION  BY  THE  AlLIED  COMMISSIONERS  TO  THE  PEO- 
PLE OF  Canton 

Inhabitants  of  Canton,  one  of  your  magistrates  who  is 
Tged  with  the  administration  of  the  district  of  Pun-yu, 
ds  been  arrested,  and  is  now  in  confinement  in  the  Yamen 
)f  the  Allied  Commissioners,  and  it  would  appear  from  the 
j)etitions  in  his  favor  which  have  been  presented  to  the 
l^ommissioners,  that  you  are  ignorant  of  the  causes  which 
lave  led  bis  punishment. 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


i 


Allied  Commissioners,  for  the  city  of  Canton  wa^ 
then  in  poss^ion  of  the  English  and  French  troops,  to  ob- 
tain the  freedom  of  Kan  Wye  and  his  son.  Having  heard 
their  statements,  he  promised  to  interest  himself  in  the  mat- 
ter. The  Allied  Commissioners,  to  whose  notice  he  sub- 
mitted the  case,  rendered  all  the  assistance  in  their  power, 
but  without  success.  The  governor-general,  to  whom  they 
referred  the  matter,  most  positively  affirmed  that  it  was  in 
the  power  of  the  two  witnesses  to  give  evidence  of  a very 
decided  nature  in  the  case.  The  father  and  son  were  fre- 
quently examined  after  this,  and  on  each  occasion  they  wer^ 
severely  beaten  for  the  tardy  manner  in  which  they  gavel 
their  evidence.  This  harsh  treatment  proved,  after  a few 
months,  more  than  the  son  could  endure,  and  he  died  in  the 
prison.  The  relatives  of  the  surviving  prisoner,  who  had  at- 
tained the  ripe  age  of  seventy  years,  fearing  of  course  that 
n his  detention  in  jail  were  much  longer  continued  he  als- 
would  die  in  prison,  urged  the  Allied  Commissioners  t 
intercede  once  more  for  his  liberation.  Mr.  Commission* 
Pownall  was  on  the  occasion  of  the  second  appeal  mo: 
kind,  and  requested  the  intercessor  to  go  to  the  yamen  of 
the  magistrate  of  Pun-yu,  in  order  to  confer  on  the  matter’ 
with  that  official  in  person.  On  his  arrival  at  the  yamen 
he  was  told  that  the  chief  magistrate  had  gone  from  home,  ^ 
and  that  the  hour  of  his  return  was  very  uncertain.  He  en 
tered  the  prison,  however,  and  had  an  interview  with  th 
old  men.  Upon  approaching  him  he  was  not  a little  dis* 
tressed  to  see  that  his  mouA  was  jnucJ^  in  cons 

quence  of  the  severe  blows  which  had  been  inflicted  on  thl 
preceding  day.  So  swollen  were  his  lips,  gums  and  tongue 
that  it  was  with  great  difficulty  he  held  a conversation  with 
the  interpreter.  On  the  following  day  another  application 
was  made  by  the  Allied  Commissiners  to  the  viceroy  for  the 
liberation  of  the  old  man.  It  also  was  without  success,  and 

e had 


in  the  course  of  a few  weeks,  and  a few  days  aft^^ 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

instead  of  being  composed  of  letters  of  an  alphabet, 
are  either  symbols  intended  to  represent  images,  or  are 
formed  by  a combination  of  lines,  or  of  two  or  more  such 
symbols.  All  characters,  say  the  Chinese  lexicographers, 
had  their  origin  in  single  strokes,  or  in  hieroglyphics,  and 
this,  no  doubt,  is  a correct  view  of  the  case.  Legends  differ 
as  to  who  was  the  first  inventor  of  writing  in  China.  One 
attributes  the  invention  to  Fuh-he  (3200  B.  C.),  who  is  also 
said  to  have  instituted  marriage,  and  to  have  introduced 
the  use  of  clothing,  and  who  caused  the  knotted  cords, 
which  had  been  up  to  that  time  in  use,  to  be  superseded 
by  characters  founded  on  the  shapes  of  his  celebrated 
diagrams.  Another  record  states  that  Tsang  Ke  who  lived 
2700  B.  C.,  was  the  Cadmus  of  China.  According  to 
received  native  accounts,  Tsang  Ke  was  a man  of  extraor- 
dinary ability,  and  was  acquainted  with  the  art  of  writing 
from  his  birth.  While  wandering  in  the  neighborhood 
of  his  house  at  Yang-woo,  he  one  day  met  with  a tortoise, 
and  observing  its  shell  distinctly  and  beautifully  spotted, 
he  took  it  home,  and  thus  formed  the  idea  of  representing 
the  objects  around  him.  Looking  upward  he  carefully 
observed  the  figures  presented  by  the  stars  and  the 
heavenly  bodies;  he  then  attentively  considered  the  forms 
of  birds,  and  of  mountains  and  rivers,  etc.,  and  from  them 
at  length  originated  the  written  character. 

But  however  great  the  uncertainty  may  be  as  to  who 
invented  the  first  characters,  we  may  take  it  for  granted 
that  they  were  simply  pictures  of  the  various  objects  of 
sense  which  were  present  to  the  eye  of  the  writer.  Thus, 
when  he  wished  to  express  a mountain  he  wrote,  as  did  also 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  y\/\yy  a symbol  which  is  written  at 
the  present  day  |jy|  • 0 now  written  served  him  to 
signify  ‘‘the  eye,’’  and  so  on.  But  such  a written  medium 
was  naturally  extremely  limited,  and  by  degrees,  in  some 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


^instances  by  the  addition  of^strokes,  and  in  others  by  a 
combination  of  one  or  more  of  these  primary  characters, 
^ the  written  language  has  been  formed  as  it  is  at  the  present 
day. 

THE  SPOKEN  LANGUAGE 

We  will  now  pass  on  to  the  sounds  of  the  language; 
and  the  first  thing  concerning  them  which  strikes  the 
student  on  becoming  acquainted  with  his  dictionary  is 
their  extreme  poverty  as  compared  with  the  characters. 
There  are  over  30,000  characters  in  the  language,  and  these 
are  represented  to  the  ear  by  only  500  syllabic  sounds. 
No  doubt  the  adoption  of  primitives  as  phonetics,  as  has 
been  already  described,  has  contributed  to  this  result,  since 
it  provided  for  the  due  expression  of  the  syllables  then 
existing,  but  for  no  more.  And  thus,  though  it  vastly 
enriched  the  written  language — one  primitive  producing  as 
many  as  seventy-four  derivatives — it  at  once  put  a stop  to 
all  increase  in  the  number  of  sounds. . The  difficulty  then 
arose  as  to  the  way  in  which  500  syllables  were  to  be 
made  to  represent  in  conversation  the  thousands  of  charac- 
ters in  common  use.  And  three  methods  have  been  adopted 
to  prevent  the  confusion  which  at  first  sight  would  appear 
to  be  inevitable.  These  are — 

1.  By  combining  with  the  word  which  it  is  desired 
should  be  understood  another,  bearing  a similar  or  supple- 
mentary meaning,  to  distinguish  it  by  pointing  to  its  mean- 
ing from  other  words  bearing  the  same  sound ; thus,  for 
‘‘to  hear,’^  it  is  usual  to  say  in  conversation  ^ ting 
keen, — ting  meaning  “to  hear,’’  and  keen  “to  see  or  perceive.” 

2.  As  regards  noun  substantives,  by  placing  certain 
classifying  words  between  them  and  the  numerals  which 
precede  them.  These  classifiers  bear  some  resemblance  to 
our  expressions  “herd,”  “head,”  “fleet,”  “troop,”  etc.,  and 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


have  a certain  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  substantives 
to  which  they  are  attached.  For  example,  the  word  pa, 
''to  grasp  with  the  hand,’'  is  used  as  a classifier  to  precede 
anything  which  is  held  in  the  hand,  such  as  a knife,  a 
spoon,  a hatchet,  etc.  Instead  of  expressing,  therefore,  a 
knife  by  yih  taou,  which  might  either  mean  a knife,  a 
small  boot,  or  a fringe,  the  classifier  is  introduced  to  show 
which  taou  is  meant,  and  a speaker  would  say  yih  pa  faou, 
literally  "a.  grasped  knife.”  In  like  manner  keen  "a 
space,”  is  used  as  a classifier  for  houses  and  enclosures ; 
kan  "a,  root,”  for  trees,  poles,  clubs,  etc.  and  so  on. 

And  thirdly,  by  dividing  the  words  of  the  language 
among  eight  tones.  These  tones  partake  of  the  nature  of 
musical  intonations,  and  are  divided  by  the  Chinese  into 
two  series,  the  upper  and  the  lower,  and  are  called  by  them 
the  upper  even,  the  upper  rising,  the  upper  departing,  the 
upper  entering,  the  lower  even,  the  lower  rising,  the  lower 
departing,  and  the  lower  entering.  To  each  character  is 
allotted  its  appropriate  tone,  which  if  wrongly  rendered 
is  liable  to  give  an  entirely  different  meaning  to  the  word 
from  that  intended  by  the  speaker.  This  possibility  will 
be  understood  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  thirty  and 
odd  thousand  characters  find  expression  in  about  500 
sounds,  thus  giving  an  average  of  one  sound  to  sixty  char- 
acters, and  these  figures  show  that  at  best  the  system  of 
tones  is  but  an  incomplete  solution  of  the  difficulty,  since, 
were  this  average  of  sixty  characters  equally  distributed 
among  the  full  eight  tones,  there  would  remain  nearly  eight 
characters  of  each  sound  identical  both  in  sound  and  tone. 

But  as  a matter  of  fact,  only  the  four  tones  of  the  upper 
series  are  in  general  use,  tO'  which  sometimes  the  first  or 
even  tone  of  the  lower  series  is  added.  The  even  tone  is, 
as  its  name  signifies,  simply  the  ordinary  tone  of  voice ; 
the  rising  tone  gives  to  the  voice  somewhat  of  the  effect  of 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


an  interrogation ; the  departing  tone,  of  doubtful  surprise ; 
and  the  entering  tone,  of  peremptory  command.  These 
may  easily  be  illustrated  by  repeating  our  negative  ‘‘no,’" 
first  in  the  ordinary  tone  of  conversation,  secondly  as  an 
interrogation,  thirdly  as  expressing  doubtful  surprise,  and 
fourthly  as  a peremptory  refusal: — thus  i No  — , 2 No 
3 No\  , 4 No  The  difficulty  of  acquiring  a knowledge 
of  the  tones  proper  even  to  the  characters  in  common  use 
is,  as  may  be  supposed,  very  great,  and  the  only  way  to 
master  them  is  to  learn  them,  as  the  children  learn  them, 
from  the  lips  of  the  natives  themselves.  No  study  of  books 
will  give  the  required  knowledge.  The  Chinese  learn  them 
by  ear  alone,  and  if  an  educated  man  be  asked  to  give  the 
tone  of  an  isolated  character,  he  generally  has  to  repeat 
a phrase  in  which  the  character  occurs  in  order  that  his 
lips  may  tell  his  ear  the  intonation  proper  to  it. 

It  will  be  easily  understood  that  the  mistakes  and  diffi- 
culties into  which  this  intricate  system  drives  Chinese- 
speaking foreigners  are  often  inconvenient  and  sometimes 
dangerous.  Some  years  ago  a petition  on  behalf  of  a Chi- 
nese criminal  was  presented  by  a wealthy  Chinese  merchant 
in  person  to  the  governor  and  council  of  Hongkong.  A 
well  known  Chinese  scholar  undertook  to  interpret  on  the 
occasion,  and  the  Chinaman  began  his  speech  with  a refer- 
ence to  our  Kwai  \ Kwok  or  ''Honorable  kingdom,'’  as  he 
designated  England.  Now  the  syllable  kwai  pronounced 
kwai  f means  "devil,"  and  used  in  combination  with 
kwok  is  an  abusive  term  not  uncommonly  applied  to  any 
foreign  country.  Unfortunately  the  interpreter  confused 
the  two  tones,  and  turning  indignantly  to  the  governor, 
he  reported  that  at  the  very  outset  the  petitioner  had  begun 
by  speaking  of  England  as  "the  devil  kingdom."  The  just 
anger  of  the  council  knew  no  bounds,  and  it  was  only  after 
some  minutes  of  wild  confusion  that  an  explanation  fol- 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  61 


lowed,  which  saved  the  Chinaman  from  sharing  the  cell  of 
the  man  for  whom  he  was  pleading.  To  a Chinaman  such 
a mistake  would  be  well-nigh  impossible,  for  the  tones  form 
integral  parts  of  the  words,  and  to  the  ear  of  a native  the 
difference  between  kwai  in  the  ascending  tone,  and  kwai 
in  the  descending  tone,  would  be  as  great  as  between  kwai 
and  kwan. 

GRAMMAR 

Since,  when  a language  is  spoken  and  understood  only 
in  the  country  of  its  birth  or  adoption,  the  study  of  the 
grammar  affecting  it  is,  as  far  as  the  natives  are  concerned, 
comparatively  unimportant,  we  find  that  little  attention 
has  been  paid  by  the  Chinese  to  the  grammar  of  their 
language.  But  practically  the  grammar,  which,  as  has  just 
been  stated,  consists  of  rules  for  the  construction  of  the 
sentence,  has  for  many  centuries  been  enforced  by  example, 
and  by  the  censorship  of  the  examiners  at  the  competitive 
examinations.  If  then  we  observe  the  connection  of  words 
which  these  authorities  have  preserved,  we  find  that  in 
every  Chinese  sentence  the  subject  comes  first,  then  the 
verb,  which  is  followed  by  the  complement  direct  and  the 
complement  indirect,  and  further  that,  as  is  the  case  in 
most  of  the  Turanian  languages,  every  word  which  defines 
or  modifies  another  invariably  precedes  it.  For  instance, 
the  adjective  precedes  the  substantive,  the  adverb  the  verb, 
the  genitive  the  word  which  governs  it,  and  the  preposition 
the  word  governed  by  it. 

The  above  sketch,  although  necessarily  brief,  serves  to 
show  that  by  carefully  following  the  laws  of  Chinese  syntax, 
it  is  possible  to  express  in  Chinese,  as  exactly  as  in  other 
languages,  all  the  parts  of  speech  in  all  their  variety  of 
number,  gender,  case,  mood,  tense,  and  person,  and  there- 
fore every  shade  of  meaning  which  it  is  possible  to  convey 


62 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


by  word  of  mouth.  The  difficulties  of  acquiring  a knowl- 
edge of  Chinese  have  hitherto  shared  that  exaggeration 
which  surrounds  the  unknown.  It  is  time  that  the  language 
was  better  understood,  and  at  this  period  of  the  world’s 
history  we  cannot  afford  to  leave  unnoticed  a language  so 
ancient  as  to  dwarf  into  insignificance  the  antiquity  of 
Western  tongues,  and  one  which  is  the  solitary  medium  of 
communication  between  400,000,000  of  our  fellow-men. 

LITERATURE 

Having  thus  attempted  to  trace  the  growth  of  the 
written  Chinese  character  from  its  first  creation  as  a hiero- 
glyphic to  its  final  development  in  the  more  modern 
ideophonetic  form,  and  also  the  rules  which  govern  the 
position  of  these  characters  in  a sentence,  our  object  will 
now  be  to  show  the  use  which  Chinese  authors  have  made 
of  the  characters  and  of  the  grammar  to  which  they  are 
subservient.  It  was  obviously  necessary  to  begin  with 
the  language,  before  dealing  with  the  literature,  since  some 
of  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  literature  are,  as  is  the 
case  in  every  tongue,  plainly  traceable  to  the  structure  of 
the  language.  The  words  of  a sentence  are  as  a piece  of 
clay  in  the  hands  of  a potter.  If  they  be  soft  and  pliable, 
that  is  to  say,  if  they  be  capable  of  inflections  and  of 
syntactical  motion,  they  may  be  moulded  to  express  with 
varying  vigor  and  force  the  highest  fancies  and  noblest 
thoughts  of  an  able  writer  in  all  the  changing  beauty  of 
poetic  diction  or  of  rhetorical  eloquence.  But  if  on  the 
other  hand  they  be  destitute  of  inflection,  and  be  cramped 
by  inexorable  laws  of  position,  which  cannot  for  a moment 
be  departed  from,  without  a sacrifice  of  sense,  the  result 
must  be  that  the  literature  of  which  they  are  the  component 
parts  will  partake  to  some  extent  of  their  hard  unyielding 

nature. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  63 


If  we  turn  for  a moment  to  the  poetry  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome,  we  find  that  some  of  the  finest  effects  have 
been  produced  by  the  power  which  the  inflectional  nature 
of  those  languages  gave  of  transposing  the  position  of 
words  in  sentences,  so  as  to  give  vigor  and  grace  to  the 
rhythm.  To  prove  the  truth  of  this  we  have  only  to  take 
some  striking  passage,  and  compare  it  in  the  original  with 
a plain  straightforward  translation  in  prose.  The  idea  is 
the  same  in  both,  but  how  differently  it  appeals  to  the 
imagination  of  the  reader.  The  gem  is  there,  but  it  has 
lost  the  advantage  of  its  setting.  It  must  now  be  judged  by 
.the  prosaic  rule  of  its  intrinsic  value,  with  no  softening  sur- 
roundings to  add  grace  and  brilliancy  to  its  natural  beauty. 

But  the  effective  weapon  which  was  thus  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  poets  and  authors  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome 
has  been  completely  denied  to  Chinese  writers.  As  has 
been  explained,  the  language  is  absolutely  without  inflec- 
tion, and  the  grammar  consists  so  entirely  of  syntax,  that 
no  word  can  be  moved  out  of  its  determined  position  in  a 
sentence  without  either  changing  its  value  or  rendering  it 
meaningless.  Thus  the  literature  has  lost  much  of  the 
variety  and  elegance  which  belongs  by  nature  to  that  of  the 
polysyllabic  languages.  And  we  might  go  beyond  this 
and  say  that  the  lack  of  that  power  of  expression  which  is 
given  by  syntactical  motion  has  been  accompanied  by  a 
blighting  influence  on  the  imaginations  of  Chinese  authors. 
Other  causes,  to  which  reference  will  presently  be  made,  are 
also  to  some  extent  responsible  for  this  result ; but  in  our  re- 
view of  the  various  branches  of  Chinese  literature,  we  shall 
find  that  those  which  are  most  dependent  for  their  successful 
development  on  the  powers  of  imagination  are  those  which 
least  repay  attention,  and  that  the  more  excellent  are  those 
which  contain  simple  narrations  of  facts,  or  consist  of  the 
arguments  of  the  philosopher  or  of  the  man  of  science. 


64 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


But  notwithstanding  this  the  Chinese  are  eminently  a 
literary,  in  the  sense  of  a reading,  people.  The  system  of 
making  competitive  examinations  the  only  royal  road  to 
posts  of  honor  and  emolument  and  the  law  which  throws 
these  open  to  everybody  who  chooses  to  compete,  have 
caused  a wider  diffusion  of  book  learning  among  the 
Chinese  than  is  probably  to  be  found  among  any  other 
people.  As  to  the  date  when  the  literature  first  took  its 
rise,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  any  certainty.  The 
vicissitudes  which  attended  the  early  manuscripts  and 
books  which  were  collected  by  private  individuals  and  in 
the  imperial  libraries  have  been  such  as  to  render  the 
preservation  of  any  ancient  record  a matter  of  wonder. 
Constant  references  are  found  in  books  to  works  which  are 
said  to  have  existed  at  early  dates,  but  of  many  of  these 
the  titles  are  all  that  remain  to  us  now. 

EARLIEST  BOOKS 

One  of  the  earliest  published  works  on  which  we  can 
lay  our  hands  is  the  Book  of  Changes,  the  first,  and  tlie 
most  revered,  because  the  least  understood,  of  the  nine 
classics.  This  work  first  saw  the  light  within  a prison’s 
walls.  In  the  year  1150  B.  C.  its  author  Wan  Wang  was, 
we  are  told,  imprisoned  for  a political  offense,  and  sought 
to  while  away  the  tedium  of  his  confinement  by  tracing 
out  a system  of  general  philosophy  from  the  eight  diagrams 
and  their  64  combinations  invented  by  the  Emperor  Fu-he. 
These  diagrams  have  been  likened  to  the  mystical  numbers 
of  Pythagoras,  and  the  leading  idea  of  Wan  Wang’s  system 
seems  to  have  been  founded  upon  the  Chinese  notions  of 
the  creation  of  the  world,  according  to  which  all  material 
things  proceed  from  two  great  male  and  female  vivifying 
elements,  the  Yin  and  the  Yang,  which  in  their  turn  owe 
their  existence  to  the  Tai  keih,  or  the  first  great  cause# 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  61 


As  Sir  John  Davis  says,  this  ''might,  with  no  great  impro- 
priety, be  styled  a sexual  system  of  the  universe.  They, 
that  is  to  say  the  Chinese,  maintain  that  when  from  the 
union  of  the  Yang  and  the  Yin  all  existences,  both  animate 
and  inanimate,  had  been  produced,  the  sexual  principle  was 
conveyed  to  and  became  inherent  in  all  of  them.  Thus 
heaven,  the  sun,  day,  etc.,  are  considered  of  the  male 
gender;  earth,  the  moon,  night,  etc.,  of  the  female.  This 
notion  pervades  every  department  of  knowledge  in  China. 
It  exists  in  their  theories  of  anatomy  and  medicine,  and 
is  constantly  referred  to  on  every  subject.  The  chief 
divinities  worshiped  by  the  emperor  as  high  priest  of  the 
state  religion  are  heaven  and  earth,  which  in  this  sense 
appear  to  answer  in  some  degree  to  the  ouranos  and  ge  in 
the  cosmogony  of  the  Greeks.’’ 

The  style  and  matter  of  Wan  Wang’s  writings  were, 
however,  so  cramped  and  vague  that  Confucius  among 
others  attempted  the  task  of  elucidating  their  dark  places. 
Many  years  the  sage  spent  in  endeavors  to  make  straight 
that  which  was  so  crooked ; and  the  only  result  attained 
has  been  to  add  some  inexplicable  chapters  to  an  incom- 
prehensible book.  But  the  fact  that  it  gave  rise  to  a 
system  of  divination  saved  it  from  sharing  the  fate  which, 
in  the  year  221  B.  C.,  befell  all  books  except  those  on 
medicine,  divination,  and  husbandry,  at  the  hand  of  the 
Emperor  Che  Hwang-ti  of  the  Tsin  dynasty.  This  monarch 
ordered,  for  political  reasons,  the  destruction  of  all  the 
books  to  be  found  within  the  empire,  except  those  on  the 
subjects  just  mentioned.  Fortunately,  no  monarch,  how- 
ever powerful,  is  able  to  carry  out  to  the  letter  an  order  of 
so  inquisitorial  a nature ; and  the  roofs  of  houses,  the  walls 
of  dwellings,  and  even  the  beds  of  rivers,  became  the 
receptacles  of  the  literary  treasures  of  the  nation  until  the 
tyranny  was  overpassed.  The  works  of  Confucius,  the  Book 


66 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  ‘ 


of  History,  the  Book  of  Odes,  the  Spring  and  Autumn 
Annals,  together  with  the  Book  of  Rites,  and  the  Four 
Books  by  the  disciples  of  the  sage  and  of  Mencius,  were 
all  alike  condemned  to  the  flames.  How  all  these  were 
preserved  we  know  not,  but  history  tells  us  that,  when  in 
after  years  efforts  were  made  to  restore  the  Book  of  History, 
28  sections  out  of  the  100  composing  the  entire  work  were 
taken  down  from  the  lips  of  a blind  man  who  had  treasured 
them  in  his  memory.  One  other  was  recovered  from  a 
young  girl  in  the  province  of  Honan.  And  these  are  all 
which  would  probably  have  come  down  to  us,  had  not  a 
complete  copy  been  found  secreted  in  the  wall  of  Con- 
fucius’ house,  when  it  was  pulled  down  in  the  year  140 
B.C. 

This  Book  of  History  takes  us  back  to  about  the  time  of 
Noah.  It  consists  of  a number  of  records  of  the  Yu,  Hea, 
Shang,  and  Chow  dynasties,  embracing  the  period  from 
the  middle  of  the  24th  century  B.  C.  to  721  B.  C.  These, 
and  a number  of  other  MSS.,  attracted  the  attention  of 
Confucius  when  he  was  at  the  court  of  Chow,  and  selecting 
those  which  he  deemed  of  value,  he  compiled  them  in  a 
work  which  he  called  the  Shoo  king  or  Book  of  History. 

This  work,  as  Mr.  Wells  Williams  says,  ‘‘contains  the 
seeds  of  all  things  that  are  valuable  in  the  estimation  of  the 
Chinese;  it  is  at  once  the  foundation  of  their  political 
system,  their  history,  and  their  religious  rites,  the  basis  of 
their  tactics,  music,  and  astronomy.”  For  the  most  part  it 
consists  of  conversations  between  the  kings  and  their 
ministers,  in  which  are  traced  out  the  same  patriarchal 
principles  of  government  as  guide  the  rulers  of  the  empire 
at  the  present  day.  “Virtue,”  said  the  minister  Yih, 
addressing  the  emperor,  “is  the  basis  of  good  government ; 
and  this  consists  first  in  procuring  for  the  people  the  things 
necessary  for  their  sustenance,  such  as  water,  fire,  metals, 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  67 


wood,  and  grain.  The  ruler  must  also  think  of  rendering 
them  virtuous,  and  of  preserving  them  from  whatever  can 
injure  life  and  health.  When  you  would  caution  them,  use 
gentle  words,  when  you  would  correct,  employ  authority.’’ 
'‘Do  not  be  ashamed  of  mistakes,  and  thus  make  them 
crimes,”  was  another  piece  of  wholesome  advice  offered  to 
the  emperor  by  his  advisers,  the  effect  of  which  is  still  ob- 
servable in  the  outspoken  confessions  of  official  incom- 
petence which  are  daily  to  be  rnet  with  in  the  columns  of  the 
Pekin  Gazette, 

As  we  shall  have  occasion  at  a subseciuent  stage  to 
refer  briefly  to  the  compilation  which  stands  next  on 
the  list  of  the  classics  ' — the  Book  of  Odes  — we  pass  on 
to  mention  a work  whose  dicta  have  entered  into  the  very 
marrow  of  Chinese  life — namely  the  Le  ke^  or  Book  of 
Rites,  This  work  is  said  to  have  been  compiled  by  the 
duke  of  Chow  in  the  12th  century  B.  C.,  since  which  time  it 
has  ever  been  the  guide  and  rule  by  which  Chinamen  have 
regulated  all  the  actions  and  relations  of  their  lives.  No 
every-day  ceremony  is  too  insignificant  to  escape  notice, 
and  no  social  and  domestic  duty  is  considered  to  be  beyond 
its  scope.  From  the  nature  of  its  contents,  therefore,  it  is 
the  work  of  all  the  classics  which  has  left  the  most  palpable 
impression  on  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people.  Its 
rules  are  minutely  observed  at  the  present  day,  and  one  of 
the  six  governing  boards  at  Pekin — the  Board  of  Rites — 
is  entirely  concerned  with  seeing  that  its  precepts  are  car- 
ried out  throughout  the  empire. 

Speaking  of  this  work,  Callery  says  with  justice,  'Tn 
ceremonial  is  summed  up  the  whole  soul  of  the  Chinese, 
and  to  my  mind  the  Book  of  Rites  is  the  most  exact  and 
complete  monograph  that  this  nation  can  give  of  itself  to 
the  rest  of  the  world.  Its  affections,  if  it  has  any,  are 
satisfied  by  ceremonial ; its  duties  are  fulfilled  by  means  c>f 


68 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ceremonial.  Its  virtues  and  vices  are  recognized  by  cere- 
monial; the  natural  relations  of  created  beings  are  essen- 
tially connected  with  ceremonial ; in  a word,  for  it  ceremo- 
nial is  man,  the  man  moral,  the  man  politic,  and  the  man 
religious,  in  their  numberless  relations  with  the  family, 
society,  the  state,  morality,  and  religion.’’ 

CONFUCIUS  AND  MENCIUS 

But  though  each  and  all  of  the  classics  bear  to  some 
extent  the  impress  of  Confucius,  only  one,  the  Chun  tsew, 
or  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals,  was  written  by  him.  At 
first  sight,  therefore,  a more  than  usual  interest  attaches  to 
this  book,  which  is  not  lessened  by  the  statements  made  by 
the  sage  himself,  and  by  contemporary  scholars  concerning 
it.  'The  world,”  says  Mencius,  "was  fallen  into  decay, 
and  right  principles  had  dwindled  away.  Perverse  dis- 
courses and  oppressive  deeds  were  again  waxen  rife.  Cases 
were  occurring  of  ministers  who  murdered  their  rulers,  and 
of  sons  who  murdered  their  fathers.  Confucius  was  afraid, 
and  made  the  Chun  tsewJ^  As  soon  as  it  appeared,  we  are 
told  that  rebellious  ministers  quaked  with  fear  and  un- 
dutiful  sons  were  overcome  with  terror.  "Its  righteous  de- 
cisions,” said  Confucius  himself,  "I  ventured  to  make.” 

The  title  also  of  the  book,  we  are  told,  was  given  it, 
because  its  commendations  were  life-giving  like  spring, 
and  its  censures  life-withering  like  autumn.  The  expectant 
student  might  therefore  be  excused  for  anticipating  in  its 
pages  an  intellectual  treat.  He  would  look  to  have  the 
history  of  the  period  dealt  with  treated  as  a sustained 
narrative,  interspersed  with  sage  reflections  and  deep 
analyses  of  the  characters  and  circumstances  of  the  time. 
He  would  expect  to  find  praise  and  blame  distributed  with 
a discriminating  pen,  and  the  foul  crimes  of  regicide  and 
murder  denounced  in  impassioned  outbursts  of  indignation. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


69 


But  how  different  is  the  book  when  we  take  it  up!  In 
the  words  of  Dr.  Legge — ‘Tnstead  of  a history  of  events 
woven  artistically  together,  we  find  a congeries  of  the 
briefest  possible  intimations  of  matters  in  which  the  court 
and  state  of  Loo  were  more  or  less  concerned,  extending 
over  242  years,  without  the  slightest  tincture  of  literary 
ability  in  the  composition,  or  the  slightest  indication  of 
judicial  opinion  on  the  part  of  the  writer.  The  paragraphs 
are  always  brief.  Each  one  is  designed  to  commemorate 
a fact ; but  whether  that  fact  be  a display  of  virtue  calcu- 
lated to  command  our  admiration,  or  a deed  of  atrocity 
fitted  to  awaken  our  disgust,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  there 
is  anything  in  the  language  to  convey  to  us  the  shadow  of 
an  idea  of  the  author’s  feeling  about  it.  The  notices,  for  we 
cannot  call  them  narratives,  are  absolutely  unimpassioned. 
A base  murder  and  a shining  act  of  heroism  are  chronicled 
just  as  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  are  chronicled.  So  and  so 
took  place : that  is  all.  No  details  are  given ; no  judgment 
is  expressed.” 

The  following  extract  from  the  annals  of  a year  taken  at 
random  will  be  sufficient  to  show  that  Dr.  Legge’s  remarks 
are  well  founded:  i.  In  the  15th  year  in  spring  the 

duke  went  to  Tse.  2.  A body  of  men  from  Tsoo  invaded 
Seu.  3.  In  the  third  month  the  duke  had  a meeting  with 
the  marquis  of  Tse  and  others,  when  they  made  a covenant 
in  Mow-Kew,  and  then  went  on  to  Kwang.  4.  Kung-sun 
Gaou  led  a force  and,  with  the  great  officers  of  the  other 
princes,  endeavored  to  relieve  Seu.  5.  In  summer  in  the 
5th  month  the  sun  was  eclipsed.  6.  In  autumn  in  the  7th 
month  an  army  of  Tse  and  an  army  of  Tsoo  invaded  Le. 
7.  In  the  8th  month  there  were  locusts.  8.  The  duke’s 
daughter  went  to  her  home  in  Tsang.  9.  On  Ke-mao,  the 
last  day  of  the  moon,  the  temple  of  E-pih  was  struck  by 


70 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


lightning.  lo.  In  winter  a body  of  men  from  Sung  invaded 
Tsaou/’  And  so  on  page  after  page. 

Having  thus  reviewed  the  Five  Classics,  we  will  now 
briefly  consider  the  Four  Books  which,  together  with  those 
just  mentioned,  make  up  the  full  complement  of  the  Nine 
Classics,  The  first  three  of  them — the  Ta-heo  or  Great 
Learning,  the  Chung-yung  or  the  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  and 
Lun-yu  or  Confucian  Analects— diVe  all  by  the  pupils  and 
followers  of  the  sage,  while  the  forth,  the  Mang-tsze,  or  the 
Works  of  Mencius,  is  by  a disciple  of  that  philosopher.  All 
these,  therefore,  represent  the  views  of  Confucius,  and  if  we 
ask  what  those  views  point  to,  we  find  that  they  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  admonition:  ‘Walk  in  the  trodden 
paths.’’  For  as  Confucius  said  of  himself,  he  came  not  to 
originate  but  to  fulfill,  and  the  primary  object  of  his  teach- 
ing was  to  revive  in  a dissolute  age  the  purity,  or  supposed 
purity,  of  former  generations ; to  quote  against  the  roues  of 
his  day  the  examples  of  the  ancients,  whom  he  believed  to 
have  been  scrupulous  in  fulfilling  the  universal  obligations 
existing  between  sovereign  and  minister,  between  father  and 
son,  between  husband  and  wife,  and  between  friend  and 
friend.  He  taught  that  man  was  a microcosm,  and  that  by 
striving  to  improve  himself  by  acquiring  knowledge,  by 
purifying  his  thoughts,  by  rectifying  his  heart,  and  by  culti- 
vating his  person,  he  would  then  be  able  to  regulate  his  fam- 
ily. When  he  could  regulate  his  family,  he  might  then  be 
able  to  govern  a state ; and  when  he  could  govern  a state, 
he  might  then  be  trusted  to  rule  an  empire.  The  empire 
was  as  one  family;  and  as  it  was  the  part  of  the  emperor 
to  cherish  and  guard  his  people  as  a father  does  a child,  so 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  people  to  render  willing  and  submis- 
sive obedience  to  their  sovereign. 

It  is  due  to  these  political  opinions  that  Confucius  has 
become  such  an  object  of  respect  to  both  rulers  and  the 


f 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  71 


ruled.  The  former  see  in  his  teaching  a ready  argument 
for  the  maintenance  of  their  authority,  and  the  people, 
believing  that  heaven  has  constituted  for  them  rulers  and 
teachers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  extend  favor  and  maintain 
tranquillity  throughout  the  empire,  have  at  the  same  time 
learned  to  hold  that  when  the  ruler  ceases  to  be  a minister 
of  God  for  good,  he  forfeits  the  title  by  which  he  holds  the 
throne.  Confucius  was  ambitious,  and  was  a courtier  as 
well  as  philosopher,  and  beyond  this  point  he  avoided  in 
any  shape  or  way  indicating  the  manner  in  which  an 
oppressive  ruler  should  be  induced  to  abdicate.  No  such 
consideration  influenced  his  disciple  Mencius,  who,  being 
superior  to  the  ordinary  ambitions  of  man,  was  superior 
also  to  their  common  timidities,  and  who  with  much 
boldness  of  utterance  freely  taught  that  the  people  were  the 
most  important  element  in  a nation,  and  the  sovereign  was 
the  lightest ; and  he  did  not  scruple  to  admit  the  conclusion 
that  an  iniquitous  ruler  should  be  dethroned,  and,  if  cir- 
cumstances required  it,  that  he  should  be  put  to  death. 

The  Confucian  Analects  and  the  Works  of  Mencius  differ 
in  their  construction  from  the  Great  Learning  and  the 
Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  both  of  which  are  continuous  treatises 
by  individual  authors;  whereas  the  two  first  named  are 
records  of  the  sayings  and  doings  of  the  two  sages,  com- 
piled from  memory  by  their  faithful  disciples,  and  some- 
what resemble  in  construction,  but  at  a vast  interval,  the 
plan  of  the  Gospel  narrative. 

We  have  dwelt  at  some  length  on  the  classics,  because, 
since  they  are  the  sacred  books  of  China,  it  is  natural  to 
suppose  that  in  them  we  may  find  the  mainspring  of  the 
national  literature.  Unfortunately,  to  some  extent  this  is 
the  case,  and  Confucius  has  much  to  answer  for,  both  as 
regards  his  teachings  and  the  literary  model  he  bequeathed 
to  his  countrymen.  Instead  of  encouraging  his  disciples  to 


72 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


think  for  themselves,  to  look  into  their  own  hearts,  and  to 
acquire  that  personal  knowledge  that  enables  a man  to 
stand  alone,  he  led  them  out  both  by  precept  and  example 
into  the  dreary  waste  of  cold  formalism,  in  which  all 
individuality  is  lost,  and  all  force  and  originality  of  thinking 
is  crushed  out.  It  may  be  said  that,  as  far  as  his  teachings 
were  concerned,  he  strove  to  suit  his  system  to  the  capacity 
of  his  audience ; and  that  he  was  successful  in  so  doing  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  for  twenty-two  centuries  his  name 
has  been  revered  and  his  precepts  have  been  followed  by  his 
countrymen  of  whatever  rank  and  station  in  life. 

As  has  been  well  observed  by  Wells  Williams,  ‘Tf 
Confucius  had  transmitted  to  posterity  such  works  as  the 
Iliad,  the  De  Ofdciis,  or  the  Dialogues  of  Plato,  he  would 
no  doubt  have  taken  a higher  rank  among  the  commanding 
intellects  of  the  world ; but  it  may  be  reasonably  doubted 
whether  his  influence  among  his  own  countrymen  would 
have  been  as  good  or  as  lasting.  The  variety  and  minute- 
ness of  his  instructions  for  the  nurture  and  education  of 
children,  the  stress  he  lays  upon  filial  duty,  the  detail  of 
etiquette  and  conduct  he  gives  for  the  intercourse  of  all 
classes  and  ranks  in  society,  characterize  his  writings  from 
those  of  all  philosophers  in  other  countries,  who,  compara- 
tively speaking,  gave  small  thought  to  the  education  of  the 
young.  The  Four  Books  and  the  Five  Classics  would  not, 
as  far  as  regards  their  intrinsic  character  in  comparison  with 
other  productions,  be  considered  anything  more  than 
curiosities  in  literature,  for  their  antiquity  and  language, 
were  it  not  for  the  incomparable  influence  they  have  exerted 
over  so  many  millions  of  minds.’’ 

But  no  such  apology  can  be  offered  for  the  example  he 
set  them  in  the  substance  and  style  of  his  writings.  And 
we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that,  though  a man  of  great 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  73 


force  of  character,  he  was  yet  strangely  devoid  of  imagina- 
tion, and  that,  in  his  blind  admiration  for  the  ancients,  he 
constrained  himself  to  walk  humbly  and  passively  in  the 
paths  that  had  been  traced  by  others.  At  all  events  he 
has  done  his  countrymen  an  irreparable  injury.  The 
inflexible  sterility  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  literature 
might  possibly  have  been  the  characterictic  of  a particular 
phase  in  the  national  mind,  but  Confucius  helped  to  per- 
petuate it  throughout  all  generations.  As  might  be  ex- 
pected, in  no  class  of  the  literature  is  the  effect  thus  pro- 
duced more  apparent  than  in  the  commentaries  on  the 
classics.  These  works  are  to  be  numbered  by  thousands, 
and,  with  some  few  exceptions,  they  are,  as  has  been  said 
of  the  writings  of  the  scribes  at  the  time  of  our  Lord,  cold 
in  manner,  second-hand  and  iterative  in  their  very  essence ; 
with  no  freshness  in  them,  no  force,  no  fire ; servile  to  all 
authority,  opposed  to  all  independence ; never  passing  a 
hair's-breadth  beyond  the  carefully  watched  boundary  line 
of  precedent;  full  of  balanced  inference  and  orthodox 
hesitancy,  and  impossible  literalism ; elevating  mere  memory 
above  genius,  and  repetition  above  originality. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  shortcoming  of  Confucius  as  a 
writer,  the  respect  he  felt  and  inculcated  for  letters  gave 
an  impetus  to  literature.  Following  the  example  he  set, 
men  began  to  compile  the  histories  of  the  various  states; 
and  authors  with  a turn  for  more  original  composition 
busied  themselves  with  the  production  of  works  on  such 
arts  and  sciences,  including  medicine,  mathematics,  law, 
and  husbandry,  as  were  known  to  them.  It  was  just  as 
this  new  industry  was  beginning  to  flourish  that  the 
Emperor  Che  Hwang-ti,  to  whom  reference  has  already 
been  made,  an  able  and  ambitious  prince,  ascended  the 
throne.  By  a judicious  mixture  of  force  and  diplomacy. 


74 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


he  abolished  the  feudal  states,  into  which  the  empire  had 
up  to  his  time  been  divided,  and  drew  all  power  and  author- 
ity into  his  own  hands. 

Estimating  the  traditions  of  the  past  to  be  almost  as 
potent  as  Confucius  had  supposed,  and  for  that  very  reason 
deeming  them  as  dangerous  to  the  existence  of  his  rule  as 
Confucius  had  considered  them  to  be  beneficial  to  the 
empire,  he  determined  to  break  with  them  once  and  for- 
ever. He  therefore  issued  an  order  that  all  books  should  be 
burned,  except  those  containing  records  of  his  own  reign ; 
that  all  who  dared  to  speak  together  about  the  Book  of  Odes 
or  the  Book  of  History  (harmless  subjects  enough,  one  would 
think)  should  be  put  to  death,  and  their  bodies  exposed  in 
the  market-place ; that  those  who  should  make  mention  of 
the  past,  so  as  to  blame  the  present,  should  be  put  to 
death  along  with  their  relatives ; and  that  anyone  possess- 
ing a book  after  the  lapse  of  thirty  days  from  the  issuing 
of  the  ordinance  should  be  branded  and  sent  to  labor  on 
the  Great  Wall  for  four  years.  The  publication  of  this 
edict  was  followed  shortly  afterwards  by  an  order  for  the 
execution  of  upwards  of  460  scholars  who  had  failed  to 
obey  the  mandate  of  the  Emperor. 

Curiously  enough  it  was  during  the  reign  of  this  un- 
compromising enemy  to  literature  that  the  brush-pencil 
as  at  present  used  in  China  for  writing  purposes  was  in- 
vented— an  invention  which  implies  that  about  this  time 
a substitute  was  found  for  the  bamboo  tablets  which  had 
up  to  that  period  served  the  purposes  of  paper.  At  first 
this  new  material  was  a kind  of  closely  woven  silk.  But 
this  was  soon  found  to  be  as  unsuitable  for  general  pur- 
poses from  its  expense  as  the  tablets  had  been  from  their 
cumbrousness ; and  shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
Han  dynasty,  when  the  decrees  of  Che  Hwang-ti  were  re- 
versed and  every  encouragement  was  given  by  the  state 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  75 


to  men  of  letters,  the  Marquis  Tsae  ''invented  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  from  the  inner  bark  of  trees,  ends  of  hemp, 
old  rags,  and  fishing-nets.’’  The  increased  facility  thus 
afforded  for  the  multiplication  of  books  was  eagerly  taken 
advantage  of;  and  from  the  Annals  of  the  Han  dynasty, 
206  B.  C.  to  25  A.  D.,  we  learn  that  the  imperial  library  of 
that  reigning  house  consisted  of  3123  sections  on  the 
classics,  2705  on  philosophy,  1318  of  poetry,  790  on 
military  affairs,  2528  on  mathematics,  and  868  on  medicine. 
But  at  the  end  of  the  second  century  an  insurrection, 
which  brought  the  Han  dynasty  to  a close,  gave  another 
check  to  the  growing  literary  taste.  And  though  the  then 
reigning  emperor,  in  his  flight  from  his  capital  at  Lo-yang, 
attempted  to  carry  off  the  contents  of  the  Imperial  library, 
only  half  the  books  reached  their  destination  at  Chang-gan, 
and  the  remnant  was  shortly  after  given  to  the  flames  by 
the  successful  revolutionists. 

Such  as  had  been  the  course  of  literature  up  to  this  time, 
so  it  continued  until  the  close  of  the  6th  century,  when  the 
art  of  printing,  which  became  known  in  Europe  nearly  900 
years  later,  was  invented  in  China.  A well-known  Chinese 
encyclopedia  tells  us  that  on  the  8th  day  of  the  12th  month 
of  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Wan-ti  (593  A.  D.), 
it  was  ordained  by  a decree  that  the  various  texts  in  circu- 
lation should  be  collected,  and  should  be  engraved  on  wood, 
to  be  printed  and  published.  Thus  within  a few  years  of 
the  time  when  St.  Augustine  brought  the  enlightening 
— a civilizing  agency  second  only  to  Christianity — was 
made  known  in  China.  But  at  first  comparatively  little 
use  seems  to  have  been  made  of  the  invention,  for  we  are 
told  that  though  it  made  some  way  during  the  Tang  (618- 
907)  and  the  five  following  dynasties  (907-960),  it  only 
influences  of  Christianity  to  Britain,  the  art  of  printing 
arrived  at  its  full  development  under  the  Sung  dynasty 


76 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


(960-1127).  It  was  during  this  last  epoch  that  a further 
improvement  was  made  in  the  art  by  the  introduction  of 
movable  types,  by  a blacksmith  named  Pe  Ching.  This 
inventor,  writes  M.  Julien,  used  to  take  a paste  of  fine  and 
glutinous  clay,  and  make  of  it  regular  plates  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a piece  of  money,  on  which  he  engraved  the 
characters.  For  each  character  he  made  a type,  which  he 
hardened  at  the  fire.  He  then  placed  an  iron  plate  on  the 
table,  and  covered  it  with  a cement  composed  of  resin, 
wax,  and  lime.  When  he  wanted  to  print,  he  took  an 
iron  frame  divided  by  perpendicular  threads  of  the  same 
metal,  and  placing  it  on  the  iron  plate,  ranged  his  types  in 
it.  The  plate  was  then  held  near  the  fire,  and  when  the 
cement  was  sufficiently  melted,  a wooden  board  was  pressed 
tightly  upon  it,  so  as  to  render  the  surface  of  the  type 
perfectly  even.  This  method  was  neither  convenient  nor 
expeditious,  so  says  a Chinese  writer,  when  only  a few 
copies  of  a book  were  to  be  printed ; but  when  a large  num- 
ber were  required,  it  printed  them  off  at  a prodigious  speed. 

At  this  and  later  periods  the  art  of  printing  has  been 
turned  to  no  better  purpose  in  China  than  to  the  publication 
of  the  histories  of  the  various  dynasties.  Allied  to  these 
annals  are  the  topographical  works  of  China,  which  for 
breadth  of  scope  and  minuteness  of  detail  are  scarcely  to  be 
equaled  in  the  literature  of  any  other  country.  We  must 
also  refer  to  the  historical  and  literary  encyclopedias  which 
form  so  very  notable  a feature  in  every  library  throughout 
the  country. 

MODERN  CHINESE  LITERATURE 

In  China,  as  elsewhere,  the  first  development  of  literary 
talent  is  found  in  poetry.  The  songs  and  ballads  which  form 
the  Book  of  Odes  date  back  to  a time  long  antecedent  to  the 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


77 


production  of  any  works  of  which  we  have  knowledge. 
This  notable  collection  has  been  followed  by  a great  variety 
of  songs,  chants,  lyrics,  etc.,  but  of  epic  poetry  the  Chinese 
know  nothing.  There  is  not  even  dramatic  poetry,  though 
they  have  a large  dramatic  literature  which  abounds  with 
lyrics  introduced  to  break  the  monotony  of  the  dialogue. 
The  theater  in  China,  as  it  was  in  Greece,  is  national  a 
religious.  It  is  under  the  direct  control  of  the  law,  and 
closed  by  public  edict  during  all  periods  of  public  moui 
ing,  while  at  the  same  time  it  plays  a prominent  part  in 
the  yearly  religious  festivals.  The  plays  are  made  up 
incidents  true  to  life,  but  they  have  no  psychological  inter( 
about  them.  There  is  no  delineation  of  character,  a 
there  is  nothing  in  the  plot  to  make  it  more  appropriate  1 
the  groundwork  of  a play  than  for  that  of  a novel.  T 
novels  are  equally  barren  and  dreary.  In  short,  the  nati 
Chinese  literature  is  no  longer  developing,  and  hope  1 
only  in  the  importation  of  foreign  intelligence  and  ideas. 


The  form  of  government  of  this  vast  empire  is  an  abso- 
lute monarchy.  The  emperor  regards  himself  as  the  inter- 
preter of  the  decrees  of  Heaven,  and  he  is  recognized  by  the 
people  over  whom  he  rules  as  the  connecting  link  between 
the  gods  and  themselves.  He  is  designated  by  such  titles  as 
the  Son  of  Heaven,  the  Lord  of  Ten  Thousand  Years,  the 
Imperial  Supreme ; and  he  is  supposed  to  hold  communion 
with  the  deities  at  his  pleasure,  and  to  obtain  from  them 
the  blessings  of  which  he,  personally,  or  the  nation  may 
stand  in  need.  This  mighty  monarch  is  assisted  in  the  ad- 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


78 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ministration  of  the  government  by  a cabinet  council,  which 
consists  of  four  great  ministers  of  state.  In  addition  to  this 
council  there  are  six  supreme  tribunals  for  the  conduct,  in 
detail,  of  all  governmental  business.  These  tribunals,  which 
are  designated  by  the  general  appellation  of  Loo-poo,  are 
as  follows First,  that  which  is  termed  Lee-poo.  This 
office  is  divided  into  four  departments  In  the  first  of  these, 
officers  are  selected  to  fill  the  various  offices  which  are 
deemed  necessary  for  the  due  administration  of  the  affairs 
of  the  respective  provinces  and  districts  of  the  empire, 
►rhe  second  takes  cognizance  of  all  such  officials.  The 
third  affixes  the  seal  to  all  edicts  and  proclamations ; and 
|the  fourth  keeps  a register  of  the  extraordinary  merits  and 
good  services  of  distinguished  men.  The  second  board  or 
ribunal  is  named  HooH-poo,  and  to  it  is  entrusted  the  care 
nd  keeping  of  the  imperial  revenue.  The  third  board  is 
Earned  Lee-poo.  To  it  is  entrusted  the  superintendence 
of  all  the  ancient  usages  and  religious  rites  of  the  people, 
md  the  preservation  of  all  temples  endowed  by  the  imperial 
vernment.  The  fourth  board  is  named  Ping-poo.  It 
'S  the  care  of  all  the  naval  and  military  establishment^* 
nroughout  the  empire.  The  fifth  is  called  King-poo. 
has  the  supervision  of  all  criminal  proceedings.  The  sixtn 
and  last,  which  is  termed  Kung-poo,  superintends  all  pub- 
lic works,  such  as  mines,  manufactures,  highways,  canals, 
bridges,  etc.  Over  each  of  these  tribunals  presides  a chief 
minister,  or  counselor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  lay  the  decisions 
of  his  particular  board  before  the  cabinet  council  of  four 
great  ministers  of  state.  When  the  decisions  of  the  boards 
have  been  thoroughly  discussed  by  the  cabinet,  they  are 
submitted  with  becoming  reverence  to  the  notice  of  his  im- 
perial majesty.  The  power  of  these  ministers,  however,  is 
almost  nominal,  as  the  emperor  regards  himself  as  respon- 
sible to  none  but  the  gods,  whom  he  is  supposed  to  repre- 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


79 


sent.  The  people  are  thus  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor  as 
children  in  the  hands  of  a parent.  But  though  there  is  out- 
wardly a contempt  manifested  by  the  emperor  for  any  or 
every  suggestion  which  may  be  made  to  him  by  his  min- 
isters, there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  private,  much  heed 
is  given  by  his  majesty  to  the  advice  of  all  confidential  ser- 
vants of  the  state.  Very  few,  indeed,  of  the  sovereigns  oi 
China  have  been  suffimiently  imbued  with  the  wisdom  oi 
this  world  to  be  able  to  rule  without  the  counsel  or  advice! 
of  others.  The  sanction  of  the  emperor  to  all  laws  and 
edicts  is  conveyed  by  a seal,  and  all  remarks  made  by  hi! 
majesty  are  recorded  in  letters  of  red,  by  what  is  styleo 
the  vermilion  pencil. 


THE  CENSORS 


Besides  the  various  councils  there  are  two  others- 
Too-cha-yun,  and  the  Tsung-pin-fow.  The  former  is 
board  of  censors.  The  censors  are  supposed  to  attend 
meetings  of  the  board  or  councils  already  described,  to 
certain  whether  or  not  intrigues  or  plots  are  being  concj 
ed  to  weaken  the  stability  of  the  government.  Members^ 
this  board  are  not  unfrequently  sent  into  the  provinces  to^ 
ascertain  how  matters  of  business  are  being  conducted^ 
there.  Spies  are  sometimes  sent  by  the  censors  to  different 
parts  of  the  empire  for  the  purpose  of  scrutinizing  the 
public  and  private  conduct  of  any  official  or  officials  upon 
whom  suspicion  may  rest.  Of  these  emissaries  the  local 
authorities  and  principal  citizens  of  all  large  and  influential 
cities  stand  in  great  awe.  His  Excellency  An,  a commis- 
sioner from  this  board,  arrived  at  Canton  in  the  autumn 
of  the  year  1862,  and  suddenly  placed  under  arrest  several 
unsuspecting  officials  and  citizens  of  distinction;  and  in 
obedience  to  his  orders,  some  of  them,  including  the  notori- 


0 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ous  Chong  Shun  and  Too  Pat,  were  executed  in  a most 
summary  manner. 

In  the  Pekin  Gazette  of  November  12,  1871,  a state- 
ment was  published — translated  in  the  China  Mail  of  De- 
cember 23,  1871 — to  the  effect  that  a censor  had  brought 
i to  the  imperial  notice  a case  of  triple  murder,  in  which  a 
k native  of  Chekiang  was  the  complainant.  The  petitioner 
Lstated  that  his  brother  was  intercepted  on  his  way  from 
■market  to  purchase  peas,  and  was  surrounded,  on  account 
lof  an  old  grudge,  by  a family  of  four  brothers,  with  the  as- 
■||stance  of  two  outsiders.  Two  men  who  were  carrying 
^[he  peas  were  killed  on  the  spot.  The  murderers  then  car- 
ried off  the  petitioner's  brother  to  their  house,  where  they 
^onfined  him,  and  afterward  put  him  to  death  by  the  sword. 

j he  matter  was  reported  to  the  then  district  magistrate,  Ng, 
|j|ut,  in  consequence  of  the  Tai-ping  rebellion,  it  could  not  be 
Pwestigated.  Ng's  successor  in  the  magistracy.  To,  by 
^ame,  had  the  offenders  arrested ; but  through  the  artful  de- 
■dce  of  an  underling,  who  had  been  bribed,  they  were  set  at 
■rge.  Emboldened  by  their  liberation,  the  murderers  dis- 
^fcombed  the  coffins,  and  mutilated  the  remains  of  the  de- 
^B^ed,  with  a view  to  the  destruction  of  all  means  of  identi- 
W cation.  For  this  offense,  another  magistrate,  Wong,  sent 
out  officers  to  arrest  them,  but  the  police  were  resisted.  The 
{^successor  of  this  magistrate  ordered  the  military  to  assist  in 
the  apprehension  of  the  murderers,  but  they  managed  to 
make  their  escape.  The  matter  had  been  allowed  to  remain 
in  abeyance  for  fourteen  years,  although  three  lives  were 
concerned.  The  prefect  had  been  petitioned  twenty-five 
times,  the  intendant  of  the  circuit  nine  times,  the  governor 
once,  and  the  governor-general  once,  and  yet  the  complain- 
ant had  not  been  able  to  obtain  redress.  Reference  had  inva- 
riably been  made  to  the  magistrate  to  have  the  murderers 
arrested,  but  they  were  allowed  to  enjoy  their  ease  at  home. 


Chinese  Police  Court. 


4" 


> 


i 


I 

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; ''I 

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j 

I 


•^^'1  ?i 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


REGISTER  OF  BIRTHS^  DEATHS  AND  MARRIAGES 

The  second  of  these  two  boards,  the  Tsung-pin-fow, 
consists  of  six  high  officials.  These  keep  a register  of  the 
births,  deaths,  marriages,  and  relations  of  the  princes  of 
the  blood  royal,  and  report  at  times  upon  their  conduct. 
The  register  in  which  the  names  of  the  lineal  descendants 
of  the  imperial  family  are  recorded  is  of  yellow  paper ; that 
in  which  the  names  of  the  collateral  branches  are  recorded 
is  of  red  paper.  These  records  are  submitted  to  the  em- 
peror every  ten  years,  on  which  occasions  his  majesty  con- 
fers titles  and  rewards.  These  titles  are  divided  into  four 
classes,  the  first  being  hereditary,  the  second  honorary,  the 
third  for  services  rendered  to  the  state,  and  the  fourth  re- 
wards due  to  literary  attainments.  It  is  imperative  upon 
the  ministers  constituting  the  board  of  Tsung-pin-fow  to 
furnish  at  frequent  intervals  the  various  tribunals  styled 
Loo-poo  with  reports  as  to  which  of  the  sons  of  the  em- 
peror possesses  in  the  highest  perfection  the  essential  quali- 
fications of  a good  sovereign.  These  reports,  like  all  oth- 
ers, are  submitted  to  the  emperor.  The  emperor  of  China 
has  the  power  of  nominating  his  successor  whether  indeed 
the  person  nominated  be  a member  of  the  blood-royal  fam- 
ily or  not.  The  desire  to  perpetuate  his  dynasty  scarcely 
ever  admits  of  the  emperor  selecting  one  to  fill  the  throne 
who  is  not  a member  of  the  reigning  family.  As  a general 
rule  each  emperor  is  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son.  Should 
the  latter  be  regarded  as  incapable  of  administering  the  af- 
fairs of  state,  the  second  or  third  son  is  called  upon  to  reign. 
When  the  emperor  is  childless  a selection  is  made  from  a 
collateral  branch  of  the  same  dynasty.  As  in  almost  all 
Chinese  families,  or  clans,  the  members  of  the  imperial 
house  are  very  numerous.  At  one  time  it  was  a practice 
to  give  official  employment  to  each  of  these  scions  of  roy- 
alty. The  custom  invariably  entailed  no  ordinary  degree 
of  trouble  and  anxiety  on  the  imperial  government  by  giv- 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ing  rise  to  conspiracies  and  rebellions,  and  it  was  aban- 
doned. Each  prince  has  now  to  rest  satisfied  with  a high- 
sounding,  but  empty  title  of  king — a royal  rank  of  which 
he  may  be  deprived  in  the  event  of  any  act  on  his  part  being 
deemed  beneath  the  dignity  of  his  family. 

THE  emperor's  WIVES 

The  people  of  China  are  taught  to  regard  the  emperor 
as  the  representative  of  heaven,  and  the  empress  as  the 
representative  of  mother  earth.  In  this  position  she  is  sup- 
posed to  exert  an  influence  over  nature,  and  to  possess  a 
transforming  power.  One  of  her  principal  duties  is  to  see 
that,  at  stated  seasons  of  the  year,  worship  is  duly  and  rev- 
erently paid  to  the  tutelary  diety  of  silkworms.  It  is  also 
her  duty  carefully  to  examine  the  weaving  of  the  silk  stuffs 
which  the  ladies  of  the  imperial  harem  weave  and  make 
into  garments  for  certain  state  idols.  The  empress  is  sup- 
posed to  be  profoundly  ignorant  of  all  political  matters. 
There  are  instances  on  record,  however,  of  empresses  of 
China  having  manifested  the  greatest  knowledge  of  these 
subjects.  The  present  empress-dowager^ — the  mother  of 
the  late  sovereign,  Tung-chi — succeeded  through  her  curi- 
ous inquiries  into  state  affairs  in  bringing  to  life  a con- 
spiracy of  certain  members  of  the  cabinet  council  to  depose 
and  murder  her  son.  The  principal  conspirators  were  de- 
capitated, whilst  others,  not  so  deeply  implicated,  were 
sent  into  perpetual  banishment.  But  besides  the  empress, 
the  emperor  has  other  wives.  These  are  eight  in  number, 
and  have  the  rank  and  title  of  queen.  These  royal  ladies 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  first  of  which  consists  of 
three,  and  the  second  of  five  queens.  In  addition  to  the 
wives  there  are,  of  course,  several  concubines. 

The  choice  of  an  empress  and  of  queens  turns  solely 
on  the  personal  qualities  or  attractions  of  those  selected, 
without  any  reference  whatever  to  their  connections  or  fam- 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


ily  reputations.  They  are  selected  in  the  following  manner. 
The  empress-dowager  with  her  ladies,  or,  in  her  absence, 
a royal  lady  who  has  been  invested  with  authority  for  the 
purpose,  holds  what  may  not  inapplicably  be  termed  a 
''drawing-room,’’  to  attend  which  Tartar  ladies  and  the 
daughter  of  bannermen  are  summoned  from  various  parts 
of  the  empire.  The  lady  pronounced  to  be  the  belle  of 
the  assembly  is  chosen  to  be  in  due  time  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  empress.  Those  who  are  placed  next  in  personal 
attractions  are  selected  for  the  rank  of  queen.  The  daugh- 
ters of  bannermen  of  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  ranks 
appear  before  the  empress-dowager  in  order  that  a certain 
number  of  them  may  be  appointed  to  fill  the  respective 
offices  of  "ladies”  and  women  of  the  bedchamber.  This  cer- 
emony is,  I believe,  observed  once  a year.  Queens  were 
chosen  for  the  ancient  kings  of  Persia  in  a similar  manner — 
to  use  the  words  of  the  book  of  Esther,  in  which  we  find 
evidence  of  the  practice — "out  of  the  choice  of  virgins,” 
The  young  ladies  admitted  into  the  imperial  zenana  are, 
as  a rule,  daughters  of  noblemen  and  gentlemen;  but  as 
personal  beauty  is  one  of  the  chief  qualifications  for  the 
seraglio,  the  inmates  of  the  palace  are,  in  some  instances, 
women  who  have  been  raised  from  the  humbler  walks  of  life. 
Indeed,  a woman  of  the  lower  orders  of  society  was,  it  is 
said,  the  mother  of  the  Emperor  Hien-Fung.  She  was  the 
keeper  of  a fruit-stall,  and  being  exceedingly  fair  and  beau- 
tiful, she  on  one  occasion  attracted  the  attention  of  the  chief 
minister  of  state,  whilst  he  was  passing  in  procession 
through  the  street  in  which  she  resided.  Being  greatly 
pleased  with  her  beauty,  he  obtained  for  her  a home  under 
the  imperial  roof  of  Paou-kwang,  where  in  due  course  she 
became  the  mother  of  the  ill-fated  sovereign,  Hien-Fung. 
A wife  was  selected  in  this  way  for  Pung-Chee.  The  name 
of  their  new  empress  was  made  known  to  the  Chinese  people 
by  iht  Pekin  Gazette  of  the  i ith  of  March,  1872.  The  procia*- 


wr  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

mation  issued  in  the  names  of  the  two  empresses  dowager 
set  forth  that  a lady  named  A-lut'e  had  been  selected  to 
become  the  kind  companion  of  the  emperor,  the  sharer  of 
his  joys,  and  the  partaker  of  his  sorrows.  The  Gazette 
further  informed  the  people  that  she  was  the  daughter  of 
Ch-ung  Chi,  a junior  officer  in  the  Hanlin  College.  His 
rank,  as  evidenced  by  his  buttons,  corresponded  to  that  of 
a prefect  or  ruler  of  a department.  Ch-ung  Chi  is,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  of  Mongolian  blood.  He  is  also  a ban- 
nerman  of  the  plain  blue  banner.  He  is  the  son  of  one 
Saishanga,  an  officer  of  some  notoriety  in  the  early  part 
of  the  previous  reign,  who  lost  the  favor  of  his  sovereign 
in  1853,  owing  to  his  inability  to  cope  with  the  Tai-ping  re- 
bellion. In  consequence  of  the  defeats  which  he  sustained 
at  the  hands  of  the  rebels,  he  was  degraded,  and  withdrew 
from  public  life.  In  1861,  his  private  mansion-house  in 
Pekin  was  confiscated  by  the  government,  and  converted 
into  the  Tsung-li-Yamen.  He  is  a man  of  great  learning, 
having  been  Chuang-yuan,  or  first  graduate  (senior  wrang- 
ler or  senior  classic),  at  the  triennial  examination  for  the 
doctor’s  degree  in  1865.  The  mother  of  A-lut’e  is  a daugh- 
ter of  the  late  Puanhua,  Prince  of  Cheng.  This  prince  was 
the  recognized  leader  of  the  anti-foreign  party  which,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  reign  of  Hien-fung  gave  so  much 
trouble  to  the  representatives  of  foreign  nations.  This 
party,  however,  was  in  the  month  of  November,  1861,  most 
fortunately  overthrown  by  the  Prince  of  Kung,  who  was 
upheld  by  the  empress-mother.  The  leaders  of  the  defeated 
anti-foreign  party  were  tried  and  decapitated,  and  as  a mark 
of  imperial  favor  Tuanhua  was  permitted  to  terminate  his 
existence  by  suicide.  In  the  same  issue  of  the  Pekin  Gazette 
to  which  we  have  alluded  was  a second  decree,  appointing 
three  other  ladies  to  become  members  of  his  imperial 
majesty’s  harem.  Of  the  ladies  in  question,  the  first  is  a 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


85 


daughter  of  a clerk  in  the  board  of  punishments ; the  sec- 
ond is  a daughter  of  a prefect ; and  the  third  the  daughter 
of  Saishanga,  the  grandfather  of  A-lut’e.  The  ladies  of  the 
royal  household  are  under  the  charge  of  eunuchs,  who  are 
called  upon  to  discharge  the  usual  duties  of  royal  seraglios. 

OFFICIALS  IN  THE  PROVINCES 

In  each  of  the  provinces  into  which  the  empire  is  divided 
there  is  a most  formidable  array  of  officials,  all  of  whom  act 
directly  or  indirectly  under  their  respective  boards  or  tri- 
bunals. Thus  in  the  province  of  Kwang-tung,  which  we 
will  select  to  illustrate  the  working  of  the  government 
in  each  province,  there  are  the  following  civil  mandarins : — 
viz.,  a governor-general,  a governor,  a treasurer,  a sub- 
commissioner, a literary  chancellor,  a chief  justice, — the 
last  four  being  of  equal  rank — six  tautais  of  equal  rank,  ten 
prefects  of  equal  rank,  and  seventy-two  district  or  county 
rulers  of  equal  rank.  Each  of  these  officials  has  a council 
to  assist  him  in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  his  office. 
Besides  these  officials,  every  town  and  village  in  the  empire 
has  its  governing  body,  so  that  the  number  of  officials  in 
each  province  is  very  great.  The  various  classes  of  officers 
are  in  regular  subordination.  Thus,  the  governing  body  of 
a village  is  subordinate  to  the  ruler  of  the  district  or  county 
in  which  it  is  situated.  The  district  or  county  ruler  is  sub- 
ject to  the  prefect  of  the  department  of  which  his  district 
is  a part.  The  prefect  is,  in  turn,  subordinate  to  the  tautai ; 
the  tautai  to  the  chief  justice  or  criminal  judge ; and  so  on, 
step  by  step  to  the  governor-general  or  viceroy.  Each  offi- 
cial stands  in  loco  parentis  to  the  subordinate  immediately 
below  him,  while  the  mandarins  are  regarded  as  standing  in 
a parental  relation  to  the  people  they  rule.  The  principle^ 
pervades  all  conditions  of  society  down  to  the  humblest 
subjects  of  the  realm, »those  who  are  in  the  higher  walks  of 


86 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


life  acting  the  part  of  parents  to  those  of  an  inferior  grade, 
while  over  all  is  the  all-embracing  paternity  of  the  emperor. 

Chinese  officials  of  certain  grades  are  not  allowed  to 
hold  office  in  the  provinces  of  which  they  are  natives,  nor 
are  they,  without  imperial  permission,  allowed  to  contract 
marriages  in  the  provinces  in  which  they  have  been  ap- 
pointed to  hold  office.  To  preclude  the  possibility  of  their 
acquiring  too  much  local  influence  in  the  districts,  or  pre- 
fectures, or  provinces  where  they  are  serving,  they  are  re- 
moved, in  some  instances  triennially,  and  in  others  sexen- 
nially,  to  other  posts  of  duty.  All  officers  are  supposed  to 
be  appointed  by  the  emperor  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  board  of  ceremonies,  the  members  of  this  board  being 
especially  regarded  as  the  advisers  of  his  imperial  majesty 
in  the  bestowal  of  political  patronage.  The  candidates  for 
office  are,  or,  according  to  law,  ought  to  be,  men  who  have 
graduated  at  the  great  literary  examinations.  The  members 
of  the  board  of  ceremonies,  however,  are  not  at  all  unwilling, 
for  a consideration,  to  submit  to  the  notice  of  his  majesty 
for  office  the  names  of  men  whose  literary  rank  has  been 
bought  rather  than  attained  by  study.  The  salaries  attached 
to  government  offices  are  very  small.  This  is  a system  which 
leads  to  most  scandalous  and  irregular  proceedings.  Thus 
the  mandarins  of  China,  though  drawing  quarterly  from 
,jthe  imperial  exchequer  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  pay, 
|are  enabled,  by  the  accumulated  gains  of  fraud  and  avarice, 
to  retire  from  office  as  men  of  wealth  and  substance.  They 
are,  and  have  been  for  a considerable  time  past,  the  very 
curse  of  the  country,  the  palmerworm  at  the  root  of  its 
prosperity.  By  their  misrule  they  have  plunged  this  fair 
land  into  that  deplorable  anarchy,  confusion,  and  misery, 
for  which  it  is  now  conspicuous  among  nations. 

The  military  mandarins  of  the  province  of  Kwang-tung 
are  also  very  numerous.  Of  this  class  the  Tartar  general 
is  of  course  recognized  as  the  head. 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 

The  duties  which  devolve  upon  a governor-general,  or 
governor  of  a province,  are  very  arduous.  He  is  responsi- 
ble to  the  emperor,  who  is  responsible  to  the  gods,  for  the 
general  peace  and  prosperity  of  his  province.  It  is  his  duty 
to  take  cognizance  of  all  the  officials,  and  to  forward  trien- 
nially  to  the  board  of  civil  appointments  at  Pekin  the  name 
of  each  officer  under  his  administration,  with  a short  report 
on  his  general  behavior.  The  information  is  furnished  to 
the  viceroy  or  governor  by  the  immediate  superior  of  each 
officer.  Should  the  governor-general  be  accused  of  any  of- 
fense, an  imperial  commission  to  investigate  the  charge  is 
at  once  appointed. 

OFFICIAL  COSTUMES 

As  we  shall  have  occasion  to  point  out  more  fully  after- 
wards, there  are  nine  marks  of  distinction  by  which  the 
rank  or  position  of  officials  of  the  Chinese  Empire  may  be 
readily  recognized.  A member  of  the  first  class,  or  highest 
order  of  rank,  wears  on  the  apex  of  his  cap  a dark-red  coral 
ball,  or  button,  as  it  is  more  generally  called.  Members  of 
the  second  class  wear  a light-red  ball  or  button  of  the  same 
size.  The  third  class  is  distinguished  by  a ball  of  a light- 
blue,  and  the  fourth  by  a ball  of  a dark-blue  color.  An  of- 
ficial of  the  fifth  class  is  recognized  by  a ball  of  crystal, 
whilst  a ball  of  mother-of-pearl  is  the  distinguishing  badge 
of  the  mandarin  of  the  sixth  class.  Members  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  classes  wear  a golden  ball,  and  of  the  ninth  and 
last  class,  a silver  ball.  Each  officer  may  be  further  distin- 
guished by  the  decoration  of  a peacock's  feather.  This 
feather  is  attached  to  the  base  of  the  ball  on  the  apex  of  his 
hat,  and  slopes  downward.  It  is  worn  at  the  back.  The 
first  of  the  outer  garments  worn  by  an  official  is  a long, 
loose  robe  of  blue  silk,  richly  embroidered  with  threads  of 
gold.  It  reaches  the  ankles  of  the  wearer,  and  is  bound 
round  his  waist  by  a belt.  Above  this  robe  is  a tunic  of 


88 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


violet  color,  which  extends  a short  way  below  the  knees. 
The  sleeves  of  this  tunic  are  wide  and  very  long,  extending 
very  considerably  over  the  hand.  They  are  usually  folded 
back  over  the  wrists.  When  an  official  is  permitted  to  ap- 
proach the  imperial  presence  with  the  view  of  conferring 
with  his  majesty,  or  of  performing  the  kow-tow,  which  in 
China  is  the  ordinary  act  of  obeisance,  etiquette  prescribes 
that  he  shall  wear  the  sleeves  of  the  tunic  stretched  over 
his  hands.  This  renders  him  more  or  less  helpless.  The 
custom  is  of  ancient  origin,  and  was  adopted  to  preclude 
the  possibility  of  any  attempt  on  the  life  of  the  emperor  by 
those  whose  duties  call  them  occasionally  into  his  presence. 
A custom  precisely  similar  prevailed,  it  would  appear,  in 
the  court  of  Persia.  It  is  thus  described  by  Mitford  in  his 
history  of  Greece: — 

“The  court  dress  of  Persia  had  sleeves  so  long  that 
when  unfolded  they  covered  the  hand ; and  the  ceremonial 
required  of  those  who  approached  the  royal  presence  to 
enwrap  the  hands  so  as  to  render  them  helpless.” 

On  the  breast-plate  and  back-plate  of  the  tunic  of  a civil 
mandarin  there  is  embroidered  in  silk  a bird  with  wings 
outstretched,  standing  upon  a rock  in  the  midst  of  a tem- 
pestuous ocean,  and  gazing  at  the  sun.  This  bird  varies  in 
kind  acording  to  the  rank  of  the  wearer.  Various  emblems 
are  used  to  indicate  the  different  ranks  of  officials.  Over 
his  shoulders  each  officer  wears  a short  tippet  of  silk,  which 
is  also  richly  embroidered,  and  which,  by  the  device  it  bears, 
indicates  the  literary  rank  to  which  the  wearer  has  attained. 
Round  his  neck  there  is  a long  chain  of  one  hundred  and 
eight  balls  or  beads.  It  is  called  the  Chu-Chu,  and  is  in- 
tended to  remind  the  wearer  of  the  land  of  which  he  is  a 
native.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  eight  beads  of  which  the 
chain  consists  seventy-two  are  supposed  to  represent  so 
many  precious  stones,  minerals^  and  metals  native  to  China ; 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


89 


and  the  remaining  thirty-six  represent  as  many  constella- 
tions or  planets  which  shed  their  benign  rays  on  the  coun- 
try. To  the  left  side  of  this  chain  are  attached  two  very 
short  strings  of  smaller  beads,  supposed  to  impress  upon 
the  mind  of  the  wearer  the  reverence  he  owes  to  his  ances- 
tors, and  the  filial  piety  at  all  times  due  to  his  parents  and 
guardians ; to  the  right  side  of  the  chain  is  attached  a short 
string  of  smaller  beads,  to  remind  the  wearer  of  the  alle- 
giance which  he  owes  to  the  imperial  throne  of  his  country. 
These  robes  and  decorations  of  state  and  office  are  not  con- 
fined to  officials  only.  Honorary  rank  can  be  purchased, 
and  it  is  common  to  see  respectable  citizens  not  at  all  con- 
nected with  the  service  of  the  government  attired  in  costly 
and  magnificent  robes,  similar  in  their  decorations  to  those 
worn  by  the  highest  officers  of  state. 

OFFICIAL  RESIDENCES  AND  OFFICES 

Government  residences  are  provided  for  all  Chinese  of- 
ficials. They  are  called  yamens,  and  in  some  cases  are  very 
extensive,  occupying  several  acres  of  land.  From  the  roof 
of  the  halls  of  many  of  these  official  residences  are  sus- 
pended richly  gilded  boards,  on  which  in  large  Chinese 
characters  are  set  forth  good  and  excellent  words.  Some 
of  these  boards  are  the  gifts  of  succeeding  emperors  to  for- 
mer occupants  who  had  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
faithful  services.  To  the  yamens  are  attached  public  offices 
for  the  transaction  of  business,  and  to  those  which  are  re- 
spectively occupied  by  district  rulers,  prefects,  tautais,  chief 
justices,  and  revenue  commissioners,  very  extensive  prisons 
are  attached. 

COURTS 

District  rulers,  prefects,  and  chief  justices  are  the  offi- 
cials more  particularly  appointed  to  preside  in  courts  for  the 


90 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


administration  of  justice  in  all  cases  which  may  come  before 
them,  whether  of  a civil  or  criminal  nature.  Each  of  these 
is  assisted  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  by  a deputy,  or 
deputies.  In  order,  however,  to  explain  fully  how  justice 
is  administered  in  China,  it  is  necessary  to  state  that  an 
accused  person  is  first  brought  before  the  gentry  or  elders 
of  his  village  or  district.  These  punish  an  offender  if  his 
crime  be  of  a minor  nature,  either  by  imprisonment  in 
one  of  the  public  halls  of  the  village,  or  by  exposing  him  in 
a cangue  for  some  time  at  the  corner  of  one  of  the  most 
frequented  thoroughfares  of  the  village,  or  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity  of  the  place  where  the  crime  was 
committed.  Should  the  case,  hovv^ever,  appear  to 

require  the  consideration  of  a higher  tribunal,  the 
prisoner,  together  with  the  depositions  and  com- 
ments on  them,  is  forwarded  by  the  gentry  to  the  man- 
darin, or  ruler  of  the  poo  to  which  the  village  belongs.  A 
poo,  as  has  been  explained,  is  a political  division  of  a prov- 
ince, and  consists  of  a number  of  villages.  On  the  9th  of 
July,  1873,  examination  of  this  kind  was  held  in 
the  village  of  Fong-chuen,  in  the  county  of  Pun-yu, 
and  was  conducted  by  the  elder  of  the  village.  A thief, 
called  Lee  Ayune,  had  been  caught  the  night  before  in  the 
act  of  robbing  a house.  The  elders  were  not  satisfied  with 
his  confession  of  that  crime,  and  insisted  upon  his  making  a 
public  declaration  of  all  his  thefts  during  the  preceding  four 
years.  The  facts  they  carefully  recorded,  and  at  the  close 
of  his  examination  the  prisoner  was  forwarded,  with  the 
depositions,  to  the  ruler  of  the  poo. 

Should  the  mandarin,  or  ruler  of  the  poo,  find  that  it 
is  within  his  jurisdiction  to  punish  the  prisoner,  he  does  so. 
Should  he  decide  that  the  case  is  one  which  ought  to  be 
submitted  to  the  notice  of  his  superior,  he,  without  delay, 
sends  the  prisoner,  together  with  the  depositions,  and  his 
own  comments  on  them,  to  the  ruler  of  the  district  or 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


91 


county  of  which  the  poo  is  a division.  The  district  ruler 
resides  in  the  county  town,  which  like  all  county  towns  in 
China,  is  inclosed  by  a high  castellated  wall.  Unless  the 
case  appears  to  require  the  consideration  of  a higher  tri- 
bunal, the  district  ruler  deals  with  it.  Otherwise  he  sends 
the  prisoner  to  the  prefect  of  his  department.  The  prefects 
reside  in  their  respective  cities,  which  are  also  inclosed  by 
high  cawStellated  walls.  If  the  prefect  sends  the  case  to  a 
higher  tribunal,  the  prisoner  is  sent  to  the  provincial  cap- 
ital. Here  the  provincial  or  criminal  judge,  or  chief  justice 
a'S  we  would  term  him,  has  his  residence.  The  chief  justice, 
who  only  tries  those  accused  of  capital  offenses,  submits 
his  decisions  to  the  notice  of  the  governor-general,  or  gov- 
ernor of  the  province,  as  the  case  may  be ; and  before  a 
sentence  of  the  chief  justice  can  be  carried  into  effect,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  criminal  should  be  taken  into  the  pres- 
ence of  the  governor-general,  or  governor,  to  make  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  guilt.  Until  certain  questions  have  i 
been  answered  by  the  prisoner  in  the  presence  and  in  the  i 
hearing  of  the  governor-general,  or  his  deputy,  the  sen-  j 
tence  recorded  against  his  name  can  neither  be  ratified  nor  ^ 
carried  into  effect.  Should  the  prisoner  stand  convicted  of 
treason,  or  piracy,  or  highway  robbery,  the  governor-gen- 
eral can  order  the  execution  of  the  prisoner  without  any 
reference  whatever  to  the  will  of  the  emperor.  Should  a 
prisoner,  however,  be  proved  guilty  either  of  patricide,  or 
matricide,  or  fratricide,  etc.,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  governor- 
general  to  bring  the  case  under  the  notice  of  the  members 
of  the  board  of  punishments  at  Pekin ; and  the  president  of 
this  board  submits  it  in  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the 
members  of  the  cabinet  or  great  council  of  the  nation.  In 
due  course  it  is  laid  by  this  august  body  before  the  emperor. 

It  is  said  that  his  majesty  carefully  examines  the  deposi- 
tions of  alj  such  cases  before  confirming  the  sentence  and 


92 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ordering  the  execution.  It  is  also  customary  for  the  gov- 
ernor-general or  governor  to  forward  to  Pekin  at  the  close 
of  each  year  a register  of  the  names  of  criminals  adjudged 
worthy  of  death.  These  registers  are  also  received  by  the 
president  of  the  board  of  punishments  and  forwarded 
through  the  cabinet  council  to  the  emperor,  who  inspects 
each  register  and  with  a vermilion  pencil  makes  a red  mark 
opposite  to  three  or  four  names  on  each  page.  The  regis- 
ters are  then  returned  to  the  provincial  governors  in  order 
that  the  law  may  take  its  course  with  regard  to  the  pris- 
oners against  whose  names  the  imperial  mark  has  been 
placed.  On  the  receipt  of  the  register  from  the  emperor, 
the  execution  of  these  criminals  is  carried  into  effect  with- 
out any  loss  of  time.  For  the  viceroy  not  to  pay  peremp- 
tory and  implicit  obedience  to  the  imperial  will  in  all  mat- 
ters would  be  regarded  as  highly  treasonable.  The  pris- 
oners whose  names  have  been  passed  over  by  the  vermilion 
pencil  do  not,  however,  obtain  a free  pardon.  Their  names 
are  submitted  a second  and  a third  time  to  the  imperial 
glance.  Should  they  be  passed  over  on  the  last  occasion, 
the  sentence  of  death  is  then  commuted  to  transportation 
for  life.  In  the  prefectorial  prison  at  Canton  were  three 
malefactors  whose  names  had  been  submitted  for  the  first 
time  to  the  emperor,  and  whose  good  fortune  it  had  been,  so 
far,  to  escape  the  extreme  penalty  of  the  law.  The  governor 
of  the  prison  cruelly  observed  in  their  hearing  that  they 
might  not  be  so  fortunate  the  next  time  their  names  were 
brought  under  the  emperor's  notice.  One  of  the  malefac- 
tors looked  thoughtful,  but  the  others,  who  were  evidently 
desperadoes,  seemed  to  think  it  a matter  of  the  most  per- 
fect indifference  whether  they  were  executed  or  sent  into 
exile  for  the  period  of  their  natural  lives.  They  would 
probably  have  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  an  ignomin- 
ious death  at  the  hands  of  the  common  executioner.  Such, 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


however,  is  not  the  feeling  of  Chinese  malefactors  in  gen- 
eral. 

Governors-general,  or  governors  of  provinces,  are  in 
certain  cases  invested  with  the  power  of  life  and  death. 
Before  the  empire  became  so  disturbed  by  anarchy  and 
rapine  they  were  the  only  officials  to  whom  such  powers 
were  delegated.  Now,  however,  it  is  not  at  all  unusual  for 
district  rulers  to  hold  commissions  by  which  they  are  em- 
powered to  put  to  death,  without  any  reference  whatever 
to  a higher  power,  all  traitorous  and  piratical  subjects. 


TORTURE 

The  mode  in  which  trials  are  conducted  in  China  is 
startling  to  all  who  live  in  lands  where  trial  by  jury  is  adopt- 
ed. Trials  in  Chinese  courts  of  law  are  conducted  by  torture. 
This  is  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  people  at  home  can 
scarcely  be  expected  to  give  credence  to  an  account  of  the  ^ 
atrocities  of  the  mandarins  in  their  endeavors  to  punish  I 
vice  and  to  maintain  virtue.  As  in  England,  however,  be- 1 
fore  the  seventeenth  century,  torture,  although  actually  ap- 
plied by  the  administrators  of  justice,  is  not  the  law  of  the 
land.  The  courts  in  which  trials  are  held  are  open  to  the 
general  public;  but  the  cruelties  for  which  they  are  no- 
torious have  left  them  deserted  by  visitors,  so  that  they  are 
now  practically  courts  of  justice  with  closed  doors.  In 
former  times,  moreover,  it  was  usual,  on  the  day  of  com- 
mission, to  affix  on  the  outer  gates  of  the  yamen  a calendail 
or  list  of  the  cases  to  be  tried,  and  of  the  prisoners'  names. | 
This  custom  has  long  been  disused  and  the  calendar  is  now/ 
placed  on  a pillar  in  one  of  the  inner  courts  of  the  yamen, 
where  of  course  there  is  no  chance  of  its  attracting  public 
attention.  The  judge  when  conducting  a trial  sits  behind  ai 
large  table  which  is  covered  with  a red  cloth.  The  prisoner  / 
is  made  to  kneel  in  front  of  the  table  as  a mark  of  respect  * 


94 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


to  the  court,  by  whom  he  is  regarded  as  guilty  until  he  is 
proved  to  be  innocent.  The  secretaries,  interpreters,  and 
turnkeys  stand  at  each  end  of  the  table,  no  one  being  al- 
lowed to  sit  but  the  judge.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
trial  the  charge  is,  as  in  an  English  court  of  justice,  read 
aloud  in  the  hearing  of  the  prisoner,  who  is  called  upon  to 
plead  either  guilty  or  not  guilty.  As  it  is  a rare  thing  for 
Chinese  prisoners — mercy  being  conspicuously  absent  in 
the  character  of  the  judges — to  plead  guilty,  trials  are  very 
numerous.  During  the  course  of  a trial  the  prisoner  is 
asked  a great  many  leading  questions  which  have  a ten- 
dency to  criminate  him.  Should  his  answers  be  evasive, 
torture  is  at  once  resorted  to  as  the  only  remaining  expe- 
dient 

Let  us  describe  a few  of  the  simplest  modes  of  torture. 
The  upper  portion  of  the  body  of  the  culprit  having  been 
uncovered,  each  of  his  arms — he  being  in  a kneeling  pos- 
ture— is  held  tightly  by  a turnkey,  while  a third  beats  him 
most  unmercifully  between  the  shoulders  with  a double 
cane.  Should  he  continue  to  give  evasive  answers,  his  jaws 
are  beaten  with  an  instrument  made  of  two  thick  pieces 
of  leather,  sown  together  at  one  end,  and  in  shape  not 
unlike  the  sole  of  a slipper.  Between  these  pieces  of  leather 
is  placed  a small  tongue  of  the  same  material,  to  give  the 
weapon  elasticity.  The  force  with  which  this  implement 
of  torture  is  applied  to  the  jaws  of  the  accused  is  in  some 
instances  so  great  as  to  loosen  his  teeth,  and  cause  his 
mouth  to  swell  to  such  a degree  as  to  deprive  him  for 
some  time  of  the  powers  of  mastication.  Should  he  con- 
tinue to  maintain  his  innocence,  a turnkey  beats  his  ankles 
by  means  of  a piece  of  hard  wood,  which  resembles  a 
schoolboy’s  ruler,  and  is  more  than  a foot  long.  Torture 
of  this  nature  not  unfrequently  results  in  the  ankle  bones 
being  broken.  Should  the  prisoner  still  persist  in  declar- 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


95^ 


ing  his  innocence,  a severer  mode  of  torture  is  practiced. 
This  may  be  regarded  as  a species  of  rack.  A large  heavy 
tressel  is  placed  in  a perpendicular  position,  and  the  pris- 
oner, who  is  in  a kneeling  posture,  is  made  to  lean  against 
the  board  of  it.  His  arrns  are  then  pushed  backward  and 
stretched  under  the  upper  legs  of  the  tressel,  from  the  ends 
of  which  they  are  suspended  by  cords  passing  round  the 
thumb  of  each  hand.  His  legs  are  also  pushed  backward 
and  are  drawn,  his  knees  still  resting  on  the  ground,  towards 
the  upper  leg  of  the  tressel  by  cords  passing  round  the  large 
toe  of  each  foot.  When  the  prisoner  has  been  thus  bound, 
the  questions  are  again  put  to  him,  and  should  his  answers 
be  deemed  unsatisfactory,  the  double  cane  is  applied  with 
great  severity  to  his  thighs,  which  have  been  previously  un- 
covered. Prisoners  have  been  known  to  remain  in  this  posi-\ 
tion  for  a considerable  time,  and  the  quivering  motion  of  the> 
whole  frame,  the  piteous  moans,  and  the  saliva  oozing  freely^ 
from  the  mouth,  afforded  the  most  uncontestable  evidence 
of  the  extremity  of  the  torture.  Upon  being  released  from 
the  rack,  they  are  utterly  unable  to  stand.  They  are  there-^ 
fore  placed  in  baskets  and  borne  by  coolies  from  the  court/ 
of  justice,  falsely  so-called,  to  the  house  of  detention  on 
remand.  In  the  course  of  a few  days  they  are  once  more 
dragged  out  to  undergo  another  examination.  Even  this 
torture  occasionally  fails  in  extorting  a confession  of  guilt. 
In  all  such  cases  another  still  crueler  torture  is  enforced. 
The  prisoner  is  made  to  kneel  under  a bar  of  wood,  six 
English  feet  in  length,  and  is  supported  by  two  upright 
pillars  or  posts  of  the  same  material.  When  the  back  of  his 
neck  has  been  placed  immediately  under  it,  his  arms  are 
extended  along  the  bar,  and  made  fast  by  cords.  In  the 
hollow  at  the  back  of  his  knee  joints  is  laid  a second  bar 
of  equal  dimensions,  and  upon  this  two  men  place  them- 
selves, one  at  each  end,  pressing  it  down  by  their  weight 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


upon  the  joints  of  the  prisoner’s  knees,  between  which  and 
the  ground  chains  are  passed  to  render  the  agony  less  en- 
durable. This  bar  is  occasionally  removed  from  the  inner 
part  of  the  prisoner’s  knee  joints,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
made  t o rest  on  the  tendo  A chillis.  When  in  this  latter  po- 
sition, the  same  amount  of  pressure  is  applied  to  it,  with 
the  view  of  stretching  the  ankle  joint. 

nut  where  are  the  witnesses?  exclaims  the  reader.  It 
would  be  wrong  to  say  that  no  witnesses  are  examined  in  a 
Chinese  court  of  justice.  It  is  occasionally  possible  to  see 
witnesses  under  examination  before  these  dark  tribunals. 
But  as  witnesses  are  also  in  some  instances  subjected  to  tor- 
ture, it  is  a matter  of  no  ordinary  difficulty  for  a foreigner 
who  is  ignorant  of  Chinese  to  distinguish  which  of  the  two 
unfortunate  men  kneeling  before  the  judgment  seat  and  re- 
”^eiving  castigation  is  the  prisoner,  and  which  is  the  witness, 
pn  one  occasion  two  men  were  kneeling  before  the 
/tribunal  of  the  ruler  of  the  Namhoi  district  of  Can- 
ton. Both  of  them  had  chains  around  their  necks,  and  as 
they  were  both  occasionally  beaten  between  the  shoulders 
with  a double  cane,  one  very  naturally  concluded  at  first  that 
they  were  companions  in  crime.  One  of  them,  however, 
as  it  turned  out,  was  suspected  of  having  a ‘perfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  guilt  of  the  other,  who  was  upon  his  trial ; and 
the  witness,  who  was  very  unwilling  to  give  evidence,  re- 
ceived a castigation.  In  a case  of  murder  which  was  tried, 
|in  i860,  in  the  same  court,  two  men,  father  and  son,  named 
Kan  Wye  and  Kan  Tai-chu,  were  called  upon  to  bear  testi- 
mony against  the  prisoner  at  the  bar.  They  persistently  de- 
clared that  they  were  altogether  ignorant  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case.  This  ignorance  was  regarded  by  the 
court  as  feigned,  and  they  w^re  accordingly  beaten  and  re- 
tained in  custody.  The  relatives  of  these  unfortunate  wit- 
nesses earnestly  entreated  the  author.^  to  ask  the 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


99 


'Tn  this  matter  the  Allies  have  been  guided  by  that  re- 
gard for  justice  which  is  the  ruling  principle  of  their  con- 
duct, and  as  your  magistrates  are  unwilling  to  inform  you 
themselves  of  the  motive  of  the  punishment  inflicted  on 
their  colleague,  the  Commissioners  have  now  no  hesitation 
in  doing  so,  seeing  that,  the  vigorous  measures  to  which 
they  have  had  recourse  have  been  adopted  solely  in  the 
cause  of  humanity  andTh  the  infer ests  of  the  people. 

'The  use  of  torture  iiTjudicial  proceedings  is  revolting 
to  the  minds  of  all  civilized  people,  and  is  also  opposed  to 
the  laws  of  China.  As  long,  therefore,  as  the  present  mili- 
tary rule  continues  in  Canton,  the  allied  commanders  can- 
not tolerate  practices  that  are  contrary  to  humanity,  on  the 
part  of  any  Chinese  officials  in  carrying  out  their  system 
of  justice,  nor  can  they  suffer  the  people  who,  for  the  time, 
are  intrusted  to  their  protection  to  be  subjected  under  their 
eyes  to  useless  cruelties  of  this  nature. 

"With  this  view  they  have  constantly  prohibited  the  use 
of  torture  in  the  native  tribunals  of  this  city,  and  they  have 
repeatedly  directed  the  attention  of  the  magistrate  of  Pun- 
yu  to  the  formal  orders  issued  on  this  subject,  but  only  to 
find  that  these  orders  have  as  frequently  been  disregarded 
by  that  functionary.  At  last  the  patience  of  the  Allied  Com- 
missioners has  been  exhausted  by  a recent  act  of  brutality, 
consisting  of  crushing  the  legs  of  three  prisoners,  which 
has  been  committed  by  the  Pun-yu,  and  they  accordingly  in- 
flict on  him  a punishment  sufficiently  exemplary  to  deter 
others  from  following  his  example. 

"Now  that  you  have  been  made  acquainted  with  the 
cause  of  the  arrest  of  the  Pun-yu,  you  should  let  justice 
take  its  course.  His  suspension  need  occasion  you  no  anxi- 
ety, as  other  officers  have  been  appointed  to  perform  his 
functions.  Continue,  therefore,  to  attend  quietly  to  vour 


100 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


turb  the  public  tranquillity  by  foolish  demonstrations,  which 
are  certain  to  draw  down  on  the  heads  of  the  authors  of 
them  the  most  prompt  and  severe  iMpishment.  Dated 
Canton,  July  17th,  1871/' 

This  proclamation  had  the  desired  effect.  The  district 
ruler,  however,  who  was  so  justly  shorn  of  the  dignity  of 
his  office,  refused,  at  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  impris- 
onment, to  resume  his  duties,  and  returned  in  the  course 
of  the  following  month  to  Pekin,  in  search  of  employment 
in  a portion  of  the  empire  where  there  would  be  no  possibil- 
ity of  his  suffering  a check  at  the  hands  of  foreign  officials. 


CIVIL  LAWSUITS 

The  legal  process  observed  in  civil  cases  is  not  very  dis- 
similar to  that  in  the  investigation  of  criminal  cases.  Should 
a dispute  arise  between  two  persons  with  regard  to  the  right 
to  houses  or  land,  it  is  usual  for  the  disputants  to  have 
recourse  to  arbitration.  The  persons  called  upon  to  arbi- 
trate are,  generally,  the  principal  residents  or  elders  of  the 
street  or  neighborhood.  Should  either  party  be  dissatisfied 
with  the  decision  of  the  arbitrators,  the  matter  is  taken  into 
a court  of  law,  and  comes  before  the  district  ruler.  The 
person  taking  the  case  into  court  has  to  incur  great  ex- 
penses in  bribing  the  underlings  about  the  yamen,  to  allow 
his  petition  to  be  submitted  to  the  notice  of  this  official. 
The  petitioner,  having  liberally  paid  these  people,  is  allowed 
to  take  up  his  position  at  the  folding  doors  of  one  of  the 
inner  courts  of  the  yamen,  and,  as  the  district  ruler  passes 
in  or  out,  he  falls  upon  his  knees  immediately  in  front  of 
the  ruler’s  sedan  chair.  The  magistrate  calls  upon  his 
chair-bearers  to  stop,  in  order  that  he  may  ascertain  the 
nature  of  the  suppliant’s  petition.  When  the  district  ruler 
^netition,  a day  is  at  once  appointed  by  him  for 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


lor 


^not  unusual  for  the  judge  to  inflict  torture.  If  of  very 
great  importance,  the  cause  is  appealed  to  a higher  tribunal. 
It  is  not,  however,  to  the  provincial  judge  or  chief  justice 
that  it  is  in  the  next  instance  submitted,  but  to  the  provincial 
treasurer.  From  his  court  there  is  a further  appeal  to  that 
of  the  governor,  or  governor-general  of  the  province.  The 
decision  of  the  governor  or  viceroy,  however,  is  not  final. 
An  appeal  can,  in  the  next  instance,  be  made  to  the  governor 
or  governor-general  of  the  province  adjoining  that  of  which 
the  disputants  are  natives,  or  in  which  they  are  residing. 
From  the  verdict  of  the  highest  tribunal  of  the  neighboring 
province,  there  is  a last  appeal  to  the  emperor,  through 
the  great  council  of  the  nation.  In  former  times  it  was  in 
the  power  of  persons  engaged  in  law-suits  to  appeal  from 
the  highest  tribunal  of  their  respective  provinces  to  the  em- 
peror in  person.  Now,  however,  it  is  imperative  on  those 
who  are  engaged  in  litigation  to  appeal  to  the  tribunal  of  the 
adjoining  province,  before  they  can  submit  their  case  to  the 
emperor. 

BRIBERY 

In  all  Chinese  courts  of  law  there  is  bribery  and  corrup- 
tion ; and  the  verdicts  of  the  courts  are  much  at  the  disposal 
of  those  who  can  pay  the  highest  sum  for  them.  There  are 
in  Chinese  records  many  instances  of  officials,  who  have 
been  bribed,  seeking  to  defeat  the  ends  of  justice.  One  of 
the  most  memorable  is  a case  of  dispute  which  took  place 
between  two  kinsmen,  the  one  belonging  to  the  clan  or 
family  of  Ling,  and  the  other  to  that  of  Laong,  who  were 
respectively  named  Ling  Kwei-hing,  and  Laong  Tin-loi. 
In  the  case  in  question  the  corrupt  practices  and  gross  in- 
justice of  the  mandarins  were  brought  before  the  notice 
of  the  emperor,  and  received  his  majesty’s  marked  and 
well-merited  condemnation.  Ling  Kwei-hing,  the  plaintiff, 
was  a man  of  almost  unbounded  wealth  and  influence.  Like 


102 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  who  in  the  midst  of  his  riches  pined 
so  long  as  the  vineyard  of  Naboth,  the  Jezreelite,  was  with- 
held from  him,  so  Ling  Kwei-hing  could  not  rest  until  a 
small  estate,  the  property  of  his  relative  Laong  Tin-loi, 
should  have  become  a portion  of  his  already  extensive  do- 
mains. He  sought  to  gratify  his  covetousness  by  claiming 
it  as  his  own.  The  case  was  brought  into  the  courts  of 
law  at  Canton,  and  the  judges  of  the  various  courts,  who 
had  been  largely  bribed,  gave  their  verdict  in  favor  of  Ling 
Kwei-hing.  Laong  Tin-loi,  knowing  that  justice  was  alto- 
gether on  his  side,  and  that  the  courts  of  law  in  which 
the  case  had  been  successively  heard  had  been  influenced 
against  him  through  the  plaintiff's  wealth,  resolved  to  set 
out  on  a journey  to  Pekin  with  the  view  of  seeking  redress 
at  the  hands  of  His  Imperial  Majesty,  Yung-ching.  This 
emperor,  who,  it  is  said,  was  remarkable  for  his  love  of 
justice,  truth,  and  mercy,  graciously  received  the  suppliant. 
So  fully  satisfied  was  the  emperor  that  Laong  Tin-loi  had 
suffered  wrong  at  the  hands  of  the  mandarins,  that  he  at 
once  despatched  an  imperial  commissioner  named  Hung 
Tai-pang  to  re-investigate  the  matter.  The  examination 
terminated  in  favor  of  Laong  Tin-loi.  Ling  Kwei-hing, 
with  every  member  of  his  family,  one  male  excepted,  was 
put  to  death.  All  the  mandarins  before  whose  respective 
tribunals  the  case  had  been  brought  were  deprived  of  rank 
and  dismissed  from  the  imperial  service.  It  would  appear 
that  Laong  Tin-loi,  previous  to  leaving  Canton  en  route  to 
Pekin,  went  to  the  jtemple  in  honor  of  Pak-Tai  situated  in 
the  Yoong-kwong  street,  or  the  western  suburb  of  Canton 
to  seek  the  blessing  and  guiding  care  of  the  god.  On  his 
return,  he  placed  on  the  walls  of  the  temple — where  it  re- 
mains to  this  day — a votive  tablet  expressive  of  his  grati- 
tude. The  house  in  which  Laong  Tin-loi  resided,  and  in 
which  several  members  of  his  family  were  put  to  death  by 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA  103 

Ling  Kwei-hing,  stands  in  the  center  of  the  village  of  Tam- 
chune,  and  is  sometimes  visited  as  a place  of  interest  by 
native  sight-seers  and  holiday-makers.  The  subject  of  the 
foregoing  narrative  is  the  burden  of  a popular  Chinese  play 
which,  to  the  great  gratification  of  the  masses,  is  often  per- 
formed on  the  stage  of  the  Chinese  theatre. 

THE  YELLOW  JACKET 

With  the  view  of  encouraging  officials  in  the  efficient 
discharge  of  their  duties,  honors  of  various  kinds  and  grades 
are  held  out  to  them ; and  the  viceroys,  and  governors,  and 
other  high  officers  of  state  have  special  instructions  to  sub- 
mit to  the  notice  of  his  imperial  majesty  the  names  of  all 
officers,  civil  and  military,  serving  under  them  and  worthy 
of  such  honors.  These  are  bestowed  not  only  upon  the 
living,  but  also  upon  the  meritorious  dead.  They  are  much 
sought  after.  Dresses  of  honor,  in  texture,  color,  and 
shape  similar  to  those  worn  by  the  emperor  and  the  other 
members  of  the  imperial  family,  are  occasionally  conferred 
upon  officials,  both  civil  and  military,  for  distinguished  serv- 
ices ; and  to  receive  from  the  emperor  the  imperial  yellow 
jacket  is  considered  one  of  the  highest  honors.  Marks  of 
approbation  similar  to  this  were,  it  would  appear  from  the 
book  of  Esther  (vi.  8),  occasionally  bestowed  by  the  ancient 
kings  of  Persia  upon  their  subjects.  Such  a distinction  was 
I conferred  by  Ahasuerus  upon  Mordecai  the  Jew;  for  he 
said,  ''Let  the  royal  apparel  be  brought  which  the  king 
useth  to  wear  . . . and  let  this  apparel  ...  be 

delivered  to  the  hand  of  the  king’s  most  noble  princes,  that 
they  may  array  the  man  withal  whom  the  king  delighteth 
to  honor.”  We  gather  from  the  book  of  Genesis  (xli.  42) 
that  this  custom  prevailed  also  in  Egypt.  Nor  were  the 
j Jews  strangers  to  it,  if  we  rightly  interpret  a certain  episode 
1 in  the  friendship  of  David  and  Jonathan  (I  Samuel, 
j|=;  xviii,  4). 


104 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


POSTHUMOUS  PIONORS 

As  we  have  already  stated,  conspicuous  merits  are  in 
some  instances  recognized  by  posthumous  honors.  Thus 
the  Pekin  Gazette  of  November  ii,  1871,  contained  the  fol- 
lowing memorial:* — 

‘Tseng-Kho-Fan,  Viceroy  of  the  two  Kiangs,  and 
Chang-Chih-Man,  Governor  of  Kiang-Soo,  in  a joint  me- 
morial humbly  report  to  the  throne  the  extraordinarily 
meritorious  conduct  of  the  late  Chun-Choong-Yuen,  Pre- 
fect of  Kat-On,  Prefecture  in  Kiang-Si,  during  the  time  the 
city  was  attacked  by  the  Tai-ping  rebels,  eighteen  years  ago, 
in  sacrificing  his  life  to  the  cause  of  the  government.  When 
the  city  was  besieged  by  the  enemy,  who  numbered  between 
50,000  and  60,000,  the  mandarin  in  question  defended  it 
with  a garrison  of  only  1,800  men  strong;  yet  frequent 
sorties  were  made,  in  which  the  rebels  were  slaughtered  in 
great  numbers  beyond  calculation.  One  day  a breach  in 
the  wall  had  been  made,  but  the  deceased  took  active  meas- 
ures to  have  it  mended,  and  while  personally  superintend- 
ing its  reconstruction,  he  missed  his  footing,  and  fell  from 
the  wall,  injuring  his  legs  badly.  On  the  eighth  day  of  the 
twelfth  moon  in  that  year  he  went  out  again  to  attack  the 
enemy,  but  was  wounded  in  several  places  so  that  blood 
trickled  down  to  his  ankles.  Famine  raged  within  the  city, 
and  the  people  had  to  live  on  the  flesh  of  dogs,  and  to 
use  fuel  in  lieu  of  candles ; yet  in  this  time  of  extreme  diffi- 
culty and  misery  he  most  indefatigably  maintained  his  po- 
sition until  the  beginning  of  the  next  year,  when  the  rebels 
stormed  the  city  from  all  sides,  having  previously  laid  pow- 
der mines  underground  to  destroy  the  walls.  Having  ef- 
fected an  entrance  at  the  west  gate,  the  rebels  were  bravely 
met  by  the  deceased  official  and  his  eldest  son,  when  they 

*The  translation  here  given  was  published  in  the  Hongkong, 
China,  Mail  of  December  23d  of  the  same  year. 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


105 


were  both  killed,  and  their  heads  cut  off  for  exposure  at  the 
east  gate.  Of  all  the  precedents  on  record  none  could  equal 
with  the  present  in  point  of  merit.  The  memorialists 
therefore  pray  that  authority  be  granted  for  a memorial 
temple  to  be  erected  to  the  dedication  of  the  deceased  offi- 
cial, who  bravely  defended  an  isolated  city  with  a handful 
of  men  against  a formidable  enemy,  numbering  several  tens 
of  thousands  strong,  with  no  prospect  of  any  relief  from 
outside,  and  no  food  for  the  sufferers  within.  The  son, 
moreover,  shared  the  fate  of  the  father  and  this  was  an  act 
of  loyalty  as  well  as  filial  piety,  which  should  not  be  com- 
pared with  an  ordinary  case  of  self-sacrifice.  Therefore  a 
temple  should  be  erected  to  their  memory  and  to  that  of 
their  followers  in  the  noble  cause.’^ 

As  another  example  of  posthumous  honors  we  may  cite 
the  case  of  one  of  the  memorialists  themselves.  When  the 
news  of  the  death  of  Tseng  Kwo-fan  from  apoplexy,  in 
March,  1872,  reached  the  ears  of  the  emperor,  an  edict  was 
immediately  issued,  bestowing  upon  that  departed  worthy 
the  posthumous  title  of  Tai-Foo  (vice-tutor  to  the  em- 
peror), with  the  epitaph  Wen-Chen  (correct  principles  of 
lietrature).  This  title  is  seldom  conferred,  and  during  the 
past  thousand  years  it  has  been  bestowed  upon  seven  per- 
sons only.  A public  funeral  was  also  granted  to  the  re- 
mains of  this  great  man,  and  to  defray  the  expense  of  it 
a sum  of  three  thousand  taels  was  drawn  from  the  imperial 
exchequer.  A public  sacrifice,  at  the  expense  of  the  gov- 
ernment, was  offered  to  the  manes  of  the  departed  viceroy. 
By  the  command  of  the  emperor,  this  ceremony  was  con- 
ducted by  Muk  Tang-foo,  the  Tartar  general  of  Kiang-soo. 
Imperial  commands  were  also  given  that  tablets  bearing  the 
names  and  titles  of  the  deceased  should  be  placed,  one  in 
the  temple  in  honor  of  ^'Illustrious  Faithful  Servants,’'  and 
another  in  that  which  is  dedicated  to  "Perfect  and  Virtuous 


106 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Minister  of  State/^  The  decree  gave  permission  for  the 
erection  of  temples  in  his  honor  at  Honan,  the  province  in 
which  he  was  born,  and  in  Kiang-soo,  the  province  which, 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  he  was  so  successfully  governing. 
The  edict  further  gave  orders  that  the  hereditary  title  of 
Marquis  should  at  once  be  conferred  upon  his  eldest  son, 
and  that  his  successor  in  office  be  commanded  to  report 
to  the  central  government  the  names  of  all  his  surviving 
children,  with  a view  of  their  being  appointed  to  posts  of 
honor.  It  added  that  any  entry  standing  against  his  name 
in  the  official  register  must  at  once  be  erased.  This  last 
provision  may  require  explanation.  In  China  governmental 
registers  are  kept,  in  which  are  recorded,  in  some  the  mer- 
its, and  in  others  the  demerits  of  the  various  civil  and 
military  officials  of  the  empire.  This  custom,  which  is  of 
great  antiquity,  was  also  practiced  by  other  nations.  In 
the  respective  books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Esther  there 
are  several  passages  which  afford  evidence  of  the  diligence 
shown  in  the  early  ages  by  the  Persian  government  in 
keeping  a record  of  the  services  of  its  officers ; and  in 
several  Greek  writers  there  are  also  allusions  to  this  prac- 
tice. 

PUNISHMENT  OF  OFFICIALS 

With  the  view  of  deterring  officials,  civil  and  military, 
from  the  commission  of  vice,  it  is  also  in  the  power  of 
rulers  of  provinces  to  memorialize  the  throne  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  all  such  delinquents.  In  a copy  of  the  Pekin 
Gazette  which  was  published  on  the  I2th  of  November, 
1872,  appeared  an  imperial  edict  in  reply  to  a memorial 
on  the  part  of  one  Li  Hung  Chang,  requesting  the  degra- 
dation and  dismissal  of  mandarins  for  misconduct  and  a 
manifest  incapacity  to  arrest  offenders.  The  edict  ordered 
that  the  magistrate  of  Toong-ping  Heen,  in  the  province 
of  Chihli,  who  had  most  signally  failed  in  capturing  the  per- 


GOVERNMENT  OF  CHINA 


107 


petrators  of  a daring  robbery,  should  at  once  be  deprived  of 
his  button,  and  that,  should  he  fail  within  a given  time  to 
arrest  the  offenders,  he  should  be  placed  under  arrest  for 
examination  and  punishment.  It  contained  the  imperial 
commands  for  the  immediate  dismissal  of  one  named  Pui 
Fook-tak  from  the  magistracy  of  Nam-woh  Keen.  He 
was  represented  as  a man  of  ordinary  abilities,  and,  although 
the  offense  preferred  against  him  had  not  been  substan- 
tiated, yet  it  was  clear  that  he  had  called  into  his  service 
men  of  evil  reputation,  and  had  in  consequence  lowered  the 
dignity  of  his  office.  But  promotion  and  honor  on  the  one 
hand,  and  degradation  and  disgrace  on  the  other,  fail  in  a 
very  lamentable  manner  to  make  the  officials  of  China  hon- 
est men. 

HONORS  TO  THE  FAITHFUL 

Although  Chinese  officials  are  perhaps  as  a class  the 
most  corrupt  state  servants  in  the  world,  there  are  among 
them  men  of  high  integrity  and  honor.  These  exceptional 
men  are  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  people,  who  avail  them- 
selves of  every  opportunity  of  doing  them  honor.  During 
the  writer's  long  residence  at  Canton  he  met  only  one  such 
worthy.  He  was  named  Acheong,  and  for  two  years  as 
governor  ruled  over  the  vast  province  of  Kwang-tung.  So 
many  and  great  were  the  blessings  which  he  conferred 
upon  the  people  by  his  excellent  administration,  that  they 
actually  adored  him ; and  when  he  left  Canton  they  rose  en 
masse  to  do  him  honor.  The  ovation  which  he  received  from 
the  citizens,  who  thronged  the  streets,  was  most  impressive. 
In  the  imposing  procession  which  escorted  him  to  the  place 
of  embarkation,  and  which  took  at  least  twenty  minutes  to 
pass  a given  point,  were  carried  the  silk  umbrellas  which 
had  been  presented  to  him  by  the  people,  and  the  red 
boards — of  which  there  were  probably  more  than  three 
hundred — upon  which  high-sounding  titles  had  been  in- 


108 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


scribed  in  honor  of  the  faithful  minister.  The  route  was 
spanned  at  frequent  intervals  by  arches.  From  these  ban  - 
ners were  suspended  which  bore  in  large  letters,  painted 
or  embroidered,  such  sentences  as  ‘The  Friend  of  the 
People,’'  “The  Father  of  the  People,”  “The  Father  and 
Mother  of  the  People,”  “The  Bright  Star  of  the  Province,” 
“The  Benefactor  of  the  Age.”  Deputations  awaited  his  ar- 
rival at  various  temples,  and  he  alighted  from  his  chair  to 
exchange  farewell  compliments  with  them,  and  to  partake 
of  the  refreshment  provided  for  the  occasion.  But  the 
formal  arrangements  could  not  speak  so  clearly  to  his  pop- 
ularity as  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people.  The  silence  gen- 
erally observed  when  a Chinese  ruler  passes  through  the 
streets  was  again  and  again  broken  by  hearty  exclamations 
“When  will  Your  Excellency  come  back  to  us?”  At  many 
points  the  crowd  was  so  great  as  to  interrupt  the  line  of 
march,  and  the  state  chair  was  frequently  in  danger  of  being 
upset.  It  was  evident  that  the  mottoes  which  were  in- 
scribed on  the  banners  hung  out  on  the  route  of  this  vir- 
tuous servant  of  the  state,  faithfully  interpreted  the  public 
feeling. 

CHAPTER  VI 

CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS  OF  THE  CHINESE 

Of  ideas  that  most  people  in  the  West  entertain  about 
the  Chinese,  some  of  the  elements  may  be  said  to  be,  odd 
manners,  “pigtails,”  cramped  feet,  long  nails,  fans,  paint- 
ings, rice-paper  drawings,  processions,  concentric  balls,  lan- 
terns, chopsticks,  eating  rats,  mice  and  bird’s-nest  soup, 
popular  infanticide  and  an  utter  want  of  benevolence. 

Following  the  order  above  given,  we  offer  to  the  reader 
the  result  of  observations  continued  during  a period  of 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


109 


nearly  fourteen  years,  hoping  thereby  to  correct  or  confirm 
his  preconceptions  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
Chinese. 

Oddness  of  Chinese  Manners. — In  watching  the  ^^every- 
day  life’’  of  the  Chinese,  it  is  impossible  not  to  detect  analo- 
gies to  habits  everywhere  else.  Thus,  other  people  dress, 
live  in  houses,  eat,  drink,  marry,  give  in  marriage,  bury  their 
dead,  are  courteous  to  strangers,  are  fond  of  fun,  love  their 
progeny,  etc.;  and  so  do  the  Chinese.  These  are,  as  it 
were,  instincts  in  the  human  race,  which,  like  the  instincts 
of  the  ant  or  the  bee,  have  never  changed  since  the  creation 
of  the  world. 

However,  in  habits  general  as  these,  there  are  inci- 
dental forms  that  may  differ;  and  in  China  they  do  differ 
oftentimes  so  remarkably  from  the  ordinary  types  among 
us,  that,  to  one  visiting  that  country,  of  all  odd  things  there 
a Chinaman  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  the  oddest. 

Not  only  in  geographical  position,  but  in  notions  and 
in  practice,  he  seems  to  be  at  antipodes  to  ^Western  bar- 
barians ;”  and  what  you  have  heard  bruited  abroad  in  your 
home  circle  of  the  strange  contrariety  in  his  habits  to  yours, 
you  will,  in  time,  find  confirmed  by  his  ways  and  manners. 

To  mention  a few  commonly  noticed : 

In  paying  calls,  you  take  your  hat  off,  he  keeps  his 
cap  on ; you  advance  and  offer  a hearty  shake  of  the  hand 
to  your  friend;  but  he,  as  he  advances  toward  the  host, 
closes  his  two  fists,  and  shakes  his  own  hands. 

At  dinners  (when  you  can  afford  it),  you  commence  with 
fish  and  soup,  etc.,  and  end  with  a dessert  of  wines  and 
fruits ; but  he  just  turns  the  tables,  beginning  with  fruits, 
wines,  and  biscuits,  and  winding  up  with  fish  and  soup. 

At  weddings,  English  ladies  wear  white ; Chinese  ladies 
cannot  wear  white,  but  other  colors.  Instead  of  young 
bleoming  bridesmaids  trimmed  in  white,  you  may  see  old 


110 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


matrons  rigged  in  black  attendant  on  the  anxious  bride; 
and,  for  a honeymoon,  the  bride  dispenses  with  a flight 
about  the  country  to  this  and  that  spa,  and  satisfies  herself 
with  being  caged  up  for  the  first  month  in  her  husband's 
house,  and  there  is  no  need  of  any  announcement  when 
she  may  be  ‘‘at  home/' 

At  funerals,  black  is  not  worn,  but  white ; and  the  dead 
are  shrouded  not  in  white,  but  in  the  gayest  dresses. 

In  amusements,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  adults  flying 
kites,  and  little  urchins  squatted  on  the  ground  looking  on ; 
and  shuttlecocks  are  battledored  generally  not  by  the  hand, 
but  the  heel. 

In  books,  the  name,  when  written  outside,  is  inscribed 
on  the  bottom  edge.  The  beginning  of  the  book  is  what 
you  would  count  the  end.  The  running  title  is  on  the  edge 
of  each  leaf.  The  paging  is  near  the  bottom,  not  at  the 
top  corner.  Marginal  notes  are  written  at  the  top,  not  at 
the  foot  of  the  page;  and  in  reading,  you  proceed  from 
right  to  left,  reading  each  column  from  top  to  bottom. 

Miscellaneous. — ^The  surname  announced  does  not  fol- 
low “the  Christian  name,"  but  precedes  it.  In  kissing,  the 
fond  mother  holds  up  her  lovely  babe  to  her  nose  to  smell 
it,  as  she  would  a rose.  In  moonlight,  no  matter  how 
bright,  you  bear  your  lighted  lantern  about  with  you.  The 
seaman,  in  naming  the  points  of  the  compass,  says,  “East, 
west,  south,  north."  In  launching  a vessel,  she  is  sent  into 
the  water  sideways.  The  horseman  should  mount  his  horse 
©n  its  right  side.  The  scholar  in  reciting  his  lesson  does 
not  face  his  master,  but  turns  his  back  upon  him.  In 
parties,  do  not  wear  light  pumps,  but  as  thick-soled  shoes 
as  you  can  get ; and,  for  blacking,  they  must  be  whitened 
with  white-lead,  and  only  the  edges  of  the  sole. 

The  Pigtail. — In  the  imagery  of  a Westerner,  the  badge 
hy  which  the  males  in  China  are  characterized  is  on  his 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


111 


head.  No  sooner  is  the  word  Chinaman  pronounced,  than 
he  stands  before  the  mind's  eye — as  delineated  on  the  wil- 
low-pattern china  vases,  rice-paper  pictures,  etc. — with  a 
flow  of  hair  depending  from  the  back  of  the  head.  To  pro- 
duce such  an  appendage,  the  head  is  clean  shaven  in  front 
and  behind  the  crown  alone  being  left  untouched,  from 
which  the  hair  grows  to  its  full  length  ^^unshaven,  unshorn." 
This  pigtail  (as  it  is  unceremoniously  called  by  people 
from  the  West)  on  an  average  measures  about  a yard  long; 
but  it  can  be  elongated  by  lengthening  the  braid  of  silk 
with  which  the  hair  is  twisted,  or  by  adding  a tress  to 
be  purchased  for  a mite  at  any  barber's  shop. 

Although  in  truth  they  belong  to  the  exception,  I have 
met  with  many  natives  who  seemed  really  careful  of  the 
cleanliness  and  neatness  of  their  coiffure— early  in  the 
morning  combing  out  the  tufts,  dressing  them  with  an  oleag- 
inous stuff,  and  braiding  the  long  black  hair  with  their 
own  fingers.  In  good  society,  the  rule  is  to  shave  the  head 
once  in  ten  days.  This  is  considered  necessary  both  for 
comfort  and  respectability.  To  let  the  frontal  hair  grow 
long  marks  a man  to  be  in  mourning  or  in  the  depths  of 
poverty. 

On  the  pate  of  a newly  shaven  youth,  there  is  occasion- 
ally a peculiarity  that  may  attract  the  notice  of  a keen-eyed 
visitor.  When  your  table  boy  comes  from  the  barber's 
hands,  with  a well-glazed  face  and  forehead,  there  is  stick- 
ing round  the  border  of  his  crown  a circular  ridge  of  bristles 
each  hair  short  and  stiff,  and  turned  up  like  a fine-toothed 
comb.  This  that  at  first  looks  so  odd,  is  explained  on 
finding  that  the  wearer  is  desirous  to  let  the  hairy  border 
grow  long  enough  to  be  braided  with  the  main  tress  that 
flows  gracefully  behind.  A very  different  solution  this, 
certainly,  from  what  appears  in  a book,  entitled  ‘Tanqui  in 
China,"  in  which  the  author  remarks,  ^This  I imagine  to 


112 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


be  the  usual  way  of  dressing  the  head  by  single  unengaged 
youths,  and  of  course  must  be  very  attractive,’’  ix.,  to  the 
fair  sex. 

The  common  laborer  often  finds  this  ornamental  plait 
inconvenient;  yet,  if  at  work,  he  can  keep  it  out  of  the 
way  by  twisting  it  into  a thick  knot,  or  twining  it  about 
the  head.  Though  at  times  an  incumbrance,  the  poorest 
man  is  proud  of  this  national  badge,  his  queue.  It  is  not  un- 
usual for  a raw  Westerner,  on  landing,  to  draw  some  sport 
from  '7^hn  Chinaman’s  tail;”  but  very  soon  he  is  made 
to  learn  that  he  must  not  meddle  too  freely  with  a badge 
so  sacred  to  his  Chinese  friend.  ^^Noli  me  tangere/'  is  the 
order  of  the  tail  as  well  as  of  the  thistle.  Yet  vain  as  a na- 
tive is  of  his  appendage,  he  can  turn  it  to  purposes — some- 
times useful.  A sailor  at  sea  lashes  his  rough  cap  round 
his  head  with  his  tail.  A crotchety  pedagogue  with  no  other 
rod  of  correction  at  hand,  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  lays 
his  tail  over  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the  stubborn 
scholar.  And,  for  a bit  of  fun,  a wag  will  play  a trick  on 
his  companions  by  tying  two  or  three  tails  together,  and 
suddenly  starting  his  comrades  off  in  opposite  directions. 

The  impression  that  the  tail  is  universally  worn 
by  Chinese  males,  is  on  the  whole  correct — being 
fashionable  among  native  Chinese  as  well  as  Manchus. 
However,  there  are  a few  exceptions.  The  complete  shav- 
ing of  the  head  is  distinctive  of  the  priesthood  in  the  Bud- 
dhist religion ; while  to  let  the  hair  grow  long  and  bound 
up  on  the  top  of  the  head  is  the  coiffure  of  the  regular 
priests  of  the  Taou  sect.  Very  commonly  you  meet  with 
wretched  beggars  who  allow  the  hair  to  grow  any  length 
without  cleaning  or  platting  it ; and  the  unsubdued  moun- 
taineers, called  Meaou-tse,  are  said  to  be  proud  of  what 
they  consider  a sign  of  independence,  the  unshaven  head. 

The  long  hair,  worn  perhaps  in  the  manner  of  the 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


113 


Taouist  priesthood,  was  from  early  times  the  habit  of  all 
China,  until  200  years  ago,  when  the  new  fashion  was  in- 
troduced by  the  Manchu  dynasty  on  its  taking  possession 
of  the  throne.  Two  centuries  have  reconciled  the  natives  of 
China  to  this  badge  of  allegiance,  and  at  the  present  time, 
more  than  ever,  it  has  become  the  distinction  between 
^'royals'’  and  ‘Tebels.’^  The  insurrectionary  movement — 
headed  by  the  chieftain  Taiping — goes  by  the  name  of  ''the 
rebellion  of  long-haired  rascals,’’  inasmuch  as  it  insists  on 
the  re-adoption  of  the  old  style  as  the  sign  of  admission 
within  the  ranks,  namely,  the  natural  growth  of  the  hair 
upon  the  entire  head,  without  being  shaven,  or  cut,  or 
platted,  but  bound  in  a top-knot.  In  one  of  the  earliest 
protests  issued  by  that  brigand  chief,  with  a catalogue  of 
ten  or  twelve  serious  complaints  against  the  supreme  gov- 
ernment, the  first  is,  "that  the  Chinese  from  the  outset  had 
their  own  style  of  wearing  the  hair;  but  these  Manchus 
have  compelled  them  to  shave  their  heads  and  wear  a long 
tail,  so  as  greatly  to  resemble  the  commonest  beast.”  Upon 
this  the  following  observations  deserve  to  be  quoted  from 
the  Edinburgh  Review : 

"As  to  this  charge  against  the  Tartar  Government,  it 
must  be  observed  that  at  its  commencement,  it  only  adopted 
the  rule  of  almost  all  other  dynasties  in  China  at  their 
foundation — the  introduction  of  a slight  alteration  in  the 
attire  of  the  male  population.  The  grievances  here  alleged 
might  have  been  felt  with  some  show  of  reason,  and,  indeed, 
in  some  places  were  avenged  with  great  fury,  by  that  gen- 
eration of  Chinese  which  had  first  to  submit  to  wearing  the 
tail,  a badge  of  subjection  under  the  scepter  of  the  Tartar 
conquerors,  now  adopted  both  by  Chinese  and  Manchus. 
But,  after  a term  of  200  years,  to  bring  up  this  as  the  first  in 
their  list  of  grievances,  sounds  much  like  an  effort  to 
inflame  the  pride  and  animosity  of  the  populace.  This,  in- 


14 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


deed,  cannot  be  denied,  when  we  read  their  appeal  in  an- 
other part  of  their  proclamations: — ‘Ye  Chinese,  we  do 
most  earnestly  wish  to  save  you.  The  majority  of  you  are 
Chinese : yet  how  can  you  be  so  silly  and  stupid  as  to  shave 
off  the  hair  of  your  heads  in  submission  to  these  Tartars, 
and  adopt  their  style  of  dress?  How  can  you  be  content 
to  remain  the  slaves  and  dogs  of  the  Manchus  ?’  ’’ 

The  Cramped  Foot. — While  the  badge  of  the  man  is  in 
the  head,  that  of  gentility  in  the  woman  is  in  the  foot.  One 
of  the  earliest  inquiries  of  a foreigner,  when  he  visits  that 
monster  curiosity-shop — “the  flowery  land'' — is  anent  this 
point;  and  any  newcomer  from  the  West,  be  he  never  so 
modest,  is  sure  to  watch  the  pedicles  of  the  first  Chinese 
beauty  or  ugly  he  meets.  But,  should  he  bring  up  in  the 
southern  waters  of  China,  the  impression  (common 
throughout  Christendom)  that  the  stinted  foot  is  universal 
among  Chinese  women,  is  at  once  broken.  The  Canton 
boat-women  (who  are  most  expert  at  the  oar)  are  the  earliest 
to  hail  your  approach  to  their  shores,  and  they  show  by 
their  naked  foot  that  they  find  it  more  convenient  to  suffer 
this  member  to  grow  to  its  natural  size.  And,  generally 
speaking,  the  female  domestics  of  the  Canton  province  pre- 
fer this  freedom  of  nature.  With  truth,  too,  it  may  be 
averred,  that  among  the  lower  classes,  the  popularity  of  this 
objectionable  fashion  is  often  but  local.  Thus,  in  Chusan 
and  Ningpo,  there  is  scarcely  a single  instance  of  a natural 
sized  foot  among  the  women,  even  the  maid-servants.  But 
in  the  north,  particularly  through  the  interior  of  the  Canton, 
Kiangsi,  the  Chihkiang  provinces,  one  observes  females 
to  whom  the  undistorted  foot  seems  indispensable  for  the 
sake  of  livelihood. 

Among  the  camp-followers  of  the  insurgent  chief,  who 
had  been  disturbing  the  heart  of  the  empire,  it  was  com- 
puted, in  1853,  that  there  were,  in  the  city  of  Nanking  only, 


CUSTOMS  AND  JMANNERS 


ir 


about  half  a million  women,  collected  from  various  parts  of 
the  country.  These  females  were  formed  into  brigades  of 
13,000,  under  female  officers.  Of  these,  10,000  were  picked 
women,  drilled  and  garrisoned  in  the  citadel.  The  rest  had 
the  hard  drudgery  assigned  them  of  digging  moats,  making 
earthworks,  erecting  batteries,  etc.  Presuming  that  a good- 
sized  foot  would  be  a necessary  qualification  for  a soldier's 
life  in  the  Nanking  garrison,  or  for  engineering  exploits  inJ 
that  singular  campaign,  we  must  give  these  Chinese  Ama-) 
zons  credit  for  having  the  foot  undeformed. 

It  appears  that  the  Tartar  families  discountenanced  such 
a malformation  among  their  daughters.  Although  Dame 
Fashion  had  occasionally  tempted  some  of  them  to  follow 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  conquered  race  in  com- 
pressing the  feet,  these  misdemeanors  (it  is  said)  have  been 
checked  by  the  vermilion  pencil  of  the  emperor.  Both  in 
1838  and  1840,  his  majesty  had  to  sigh  out,  ''0  temporal  0 
moresT  and,  issuing  his  orders  for  reform,  he  threatened 
the  heads  of  families  with  degradation  if  they  persisted  in 
irregularities  of  this  stamp,  and  likewise  warned  the  fair 
ladies,  that,  by  falling  into  such  low  and  vulgar  habits  they 
would  unfit  themselves  for  selection  as  ladies  of  honor  for 
the  inner  palace. 

These  remarks  and  instances  go  to  show  that  there  is 
a large  and  respectable  minority  of  females  in  China  with 
undistorted  feet. 

But  as  it  is  an  error  to  say  that  the  cramped  foot  is  uni- 
versal in  China,  it  is  no  less  a mistake  to  state,  what  has 
appeared  in  print,  ‘‘that  only  parents  of  the  wealthier  sort 
can  afford  to  their  daughters  the  luxury  of  small  feet.''  The 
streets  and  houses,  in  every  town  accessible  to  foreigners 
abundantly  testify  how  this  fashion  is  mimicked  by  all 
classes.  Even  among  the  poor,  who  are  likely  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  preserving  it  in  its  natural  size,  there  is  another 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


mode  of  calculating  the  profit  and  loss  of  the  bandaged  foot. 
When  their  daughters  are  given  in  marriage,  ^^the  golden 
lilies’’  (as  their  delicate  feet  are  politely  called)  come  in  as 
a matter  of  no  trifling  pecuniary  consideration.  It  is  not 
at  all  improbable  that  many  who  have  submitted  to  the  tor- 
ture till  marriage,  have  felt  it  absolutely  necessary  to 
loosen  the  bandages  and  set  themselves  free,  to  assist  their 
khusbands  in  the  garden  or  in  the  fields.  Yet  it  is  un- 
questionable that  among  the  lower  orders,  too,  as  well  as 
the  richer,  the  custom  is  popular  and  fashionable.  In  gangs 
of  female  beggars  which  are  passed  in  the  streets  of 
some  of  their  cities,  one  sees  those  whose  bodies  are 
covered  with  rags  and  vermin,  but  whose  feet  are  bound  as 
tightly  and  squeezed  to  as  minute  dimensions  as  you  might 
witness  in  any  wealthy  family.  Not  unusually  what  to  your 
eye  seems  a foot  duly  bound  and  bandaged,  is  all  sham,  and 
got  up  for  the  sake  of  aping  respectability.  A nurse  in  the 
family,  in  her  evolutions  by  day,  will  sport  quasi-cramped 
feet ; but,  when  suddenly  called  up  at  midnight,  will  expose 
feet  of  ordinary  and  undeformed  dimensions.  The  pretense 
is  admirably  kept  up,  in  some  instances,  by  wearing  short 
stilts,  with  small  wooden  feet  in  elegantly  embroidered 
shoes.  The  writer  has  seen  the  part  of  a Chinese  actress 
played,  one  of  whose  chief  attractions  was  a remarkably 
small  and  elegant  foot.  The  gait,  the  manner,  were  entirely 
feminine.  However,  it  turned  out  to  be  nothing  but  imita- 
tion to  the  very  feet — all  performed  by  a youth ! 

No  one  has  ever  been  able  to  explain  satisfactorily  the 
reason  for  introducing  this  singular  custom  among  the 
Chinese^ — ^whether  to  imitate  small,  delicate  feet,  or  to  keep 
women  from  gadding  about,  or  to  denote  gentility  and 
freedom  from  toil  and  hard  work.  Nor  are  the  Chinese 
themselves  agreed  as  to  the  precise  date  of  its  introduction, 
or  thre  real  originator  of  the  hideous  deformity. 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


117 


Certain  it  is  that  the  fashion  is  not  derived  by  tradition 
from  the  first  descendants  of  Noah’s  family.  Some  Euro- 
peans, who  conceive  that  there  is  no  species  of  mon- 
strosity but  what  must  be  laid  at  the  door  of  the  Tartar  con- 
querors, boldly  assert  that  the  cramped  foot  was  introduced 
by  them  200  years  since,  when  they  mounted  the  throne 
of  China.  There  is  not  the  slightest  foundation,  however, 
for  such  an  assertion.  The  written  accounts  of  the  natives, 
in  tracing  this  custom,  go  much  further  back  than  200  years. 
One  author  ascribes  its  origin  to  an  infamous  woman, 
Tankey,  who  lived  B.  C.  iioo.  She  was  empress  at  the 
time.  Having  been  born  with  club-feet,  she,  by  her  mar- 
velous influence  over  her  husband,  induced  him  to  adopt 
her  form  of  foot  as  the  model  of  beauty  and  to  enforce  by 
imperial  edict  the  compression  of  the  feet  of  female  infants 
down  to  this  imperial  standard. 

Others  are  of  opinion  that  the  detestable  custom 
arose  1700  years  after  her,  or  A.  D.  600.  According  to 
them,  the  then  reigning  monarch  Yangte,  ordered  a pet 
concubine  to  bandage  her  feet.  On  the  sole  of  her  shoe 
he  had  stamped  the  lotus  flower ; and  each  step  this  royal 
mistress  took,  she  left  on  the  ground  a print  of  the  lotus, 
or  water  lily.  On  this  account,  to  the  present  day,  the 
bandaged  feet  of  Chinese  ladies  are  complimented  as  ‘^gold- 
en lilies.” 

But  another  account  maintains  that  the  fashion  owes 
its  existence  to  a whim  of  Le-yuh,  a licentious  and  tyran- 
nical prince  of  the  Tang  dynasty,  who  held  his  court  at  Nan- 
king about  A.  D.  916.  It  seems  that  one  day,  as  he  was 
amusing  himself,  the  thought  struck  him  he  might  improve 
the  appearance  of  the  feet  of  a choice  favorite  in  his  harem, 
by  bending  the  instep,  and  raising  it  into  an  arch,  in  his 
imagery  something  resembling  the  new  moon.  How  a re- 
semblance was  effected  it  is  difficult  to  imagine.  Neverthe- 


118 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


less,  the  courtiers  were  so  taken  with  admiration  of  this 
contortion,  that  the  novel  form  was  immediately  introduced 
into  their  families. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  but  in  the  estimate  of  the  Chinese 
nation  this  artificial  deformity  is  an  essential  among  the 
elements  of  feminine  beauty— or,  as  a native  writer  says, 
^'not  to  bind  the  foot  is  a disgrace.’’  Mr.  Lay  has  justly 
observed,  ‘'A  foot  two  inches  in  length  is  the  idol  of  a 
Chinaman,  on  which  he  lavishes  the  most  precious  epithets 
which  nature  and  language  can  supply.”  In  reciting  the 
ravishing  charms  of  their  ladies,  they  seldom,  if  ever,  forget 
to  mention  the  extreme  smallness  of  the  foot.  Indeed,  the 
more  reduced  it  is,  the  more  graceful  and  becoming  it  is 
thought  to  be.  But  for  us  to  trace  out  any  physical  beauty 
in  this  odious  cramping  of  the  female  foot,  would  be  an  im- 
possibility equal  to  that  which  a Chinese  would  feel  in  try- 
ing to  detect  any  beauty  in  the  shocking  squeezing  of  the 
waists  of  Western  women  into  taper  forms. 

There  have  been  among  the  Chinese  themselves  those 
who  have  been  humane  enough  to  deplore  the  unnatural 
practice,  and  have  possessed  the  courage  to  condemn  it. 
A talented  writer,  in  the  end  of  last  century,  in  expressing 
his  abhorrence  of  a custom  so  vicious,  represents  the  Prince 
Le-yuh  as  the  introducer  of  it,  and  on  that  account  con- 
demned him  to  endure  a term  of  700  years’  punishment  in 
one  of  the  Buddhistic  hells,  which,  he  says,  is  but  the  first  of 
a series  of  penalties  awaiting  the  culprit  through  an  inter- 
minable cycle  of  years  to  come.  During  the  anarchy  that 
prevailed  at  the  accession  of  the  present  dynasty,  a notorious 
robber-chief,  who  had  a particular  detestation  of  the  club- 
feet of  Chinese  women,  chopped  off  the  feet  of  a very  large 
number  of  females,  and  raised  a vast  pile  of  them.  But 
the  manes  of  those  injured  women  are  described  not  as 
crying  for  vengeance  upon  the  bandit  chief,  but  upon  the 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


119 


head  of  that  unpopular  and  unlucky  Prince  Le-yuh,  whom ' 
they  regard  as  the  real  occasion  of  their  sufferings.  Heaven 
is  represented  as  responding  to  the  appeal  of  these  unfortu- 
nates by  sentencing  the  tyrant  to  make  1,000,000  pairs  of , 
shoes  for  the  women  of  China  with  his  own  fingers ! 

As  to  the  age  at  which  the  foot  of  the  poor  girl  is  sub- 
jected to  this  cruel  operation — ordinarily  it  is  about  the 
sixth  or  seventh  year;  although,  among  the  wealthier  1 
classes,  shortly  after  the  child  has  begun  to  walk.  The  | 
notion  of  ''iron  shoes’"  and  "wooden  shoe's”  being 
used  is  a sheer  figment  in  the  brain  of  an  over-imagina- 
tive foreigner.  Only  bandages  are  used.  The  object  is  not 
so  much  to  make  the  foot  smaller,  as  to  cramp  its  growth 
into  a certain  shape.  To  force  a contracted  form,  and  to 
keep  it  in  that  shape,  plain  tight  bandages  are  found  quite 
sufficient,  and  these  are  not  permanently  to  be  removed 
until  the  desired  figure  be  brought  out.  In  notices  of  China, 
given  a few  years  since,  in  "Annales  de  la  Propagation  de  la 
Foi,”  the  Journalist  observes : "As  they  wear  two  pairs  of 
shoes,  one  upon  the  other,  and  always  keep  one  on,  night 
and  day,  their  feet  are  in  the  shackles.”  This  does  not  agree 
with  the  custom  of  the  people,  as  observed  by  others,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  Romish  missionary  mistook  the 
bandage  on  the  foot  for  a pair  of  shoes. 

Generally,  the  result  of  such  binding  is,  that  four  of 
the  toes  are  bent  under  the  sole,  the  big  toe  only  being  left 
free,  and  the  instep  is  forced  up  into  a bulge.  Accordingly, 
the  walk  of  "the  little-footed  celestials”  is  a short  and  quick 
step,  with  a swinging  of  the  arms — precisely  as  in  walking 
on  one’s  heels.  The  Chinese  compare  this  to  the  waving 
of  a willow  before  a gentle  breeze ! Frequently,  to  support 
themselves  in  walking,  these  "waving  willows”  use  an  um- 
brella, make  a walking-stick  of  an  attendant,  or  lean  upon 
the  shoulders  of  a respectful  grandson,  A 


120 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


It  cannot  be  doubted  that  cases  of  gangrene  have  oc- 
curred from  such  severe  compression  of  the  foot ; and  loss 
of  both  feet,  or  of  life,  and  other  evils,  might  be  detailed 
as  arising  out  of  this  pernicious  rule  of  fashion.  But,  the  in- 
jurious effects  to  life  and  health  from  this  tortuous  position 
are  not  so  certain  as  has  been  imagined.  Mr.  Lockhart,  in 
his  ‘'Medical  Missionary  Report  of  his  Hospital  at  Chusan, 
in  the  year  1840-41,”  observes:  “Though  several  females 
came  to  the  hospital  affected  with  various  diseases  and  with 
ulcers  of  the  leg,  only  in  one  or  two  instances  was  there 
seen  any  ulcer  or  other  disease  apparently  caused  by  the 
compression  of  the  foot  and  the  forced  distortion  of  its 
bones.  It  cannot  be  said  with  any  degree  of  certainty  how 
far  this  practice  is  injurious  to  health ; but  it  would  appear, 
from  the  observation  of  numerous  instances  among  differ- 
ent classes  of  society,  both  in  children  and  adults,  that  it 
does  not  cause  so  much  misery  as  might  be  expected  from 
the  severe  treatment  to  which  the  feet  are  subjected  in  in- 
fancy. And  torturing  as  this  treatment  of  the  feet  would 
appear  to  be,  and  unsightly  as  are  its  consequences,  it  is, 
perhaps,  on  the  whole,  not  more  injurious  to  health  and 
comfort  than  are  the  practices  inflicted  by  fashion  on  the 
female  sex  in  Western  nations.” 

If  there  really  be  pain  or  distress  in  feet  so  tightly 
bandaged,  it  is  marvelous  to  watch  the  evident  freedom 
from  both,  shown  by  women  who  can  walk  several  miles 
a day — or  by  nurses,  that  seem  to  bear  about  their  infant 
charges  without  discomfort — or  by  maid-servants,  who  with 
apparent  ease  perform  more  than  the  ordinary  amount  of 
duties  undertaken  by  English  servants.  There  is  nothing 
like  the  distress  we  should  expect  shown  by  the  young 
women,  who,  with  feet  like  hoofs,  go  through  strange  pos- 
ture-making dances,  or  by  the  little  girls  that  play  about 
kthe  streets  and  lanes.  Women  are  fond  of  playing  at  shut- 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


121 


tlecock,  and,  for  the  battledore,  use  the  cramped  foot,  but 
apparently  without  annoyance.  For  instance,  in  a company 
of  traveling  jugglers,  a woman  will  raise  a four>legged  table 
upon  her  two  club  feet,  balance  it  in  the  air,  and  turn  it 
round  and  round  upon  her  two  extremities,  but  without 
manifesting  pain. 

To  conclude  this  long  paragraph  on  the  foot  fashion- 
able among  the  fair  sex  in  China,  we  must  declare  that  any 
one  acquainted  with  Chinese  society  should  hesitate  in  say- 
ing, as  has  been  said  in  the  ^'Annales  de  la  Propagation  de 
la  Foi,’'  that  ''it  is  a great  act  of  indecorum  to  look  at  a 
woman’s  foot;”  and  to  such  a one  the  fable  will  sound 
equally  ludicrous  (given  in  Murray’s  "China,”  vol.  ii.  p. 
266),  "that  a lady  presents  her  feet  as  the  surest  darts  with 
which  a lover’s  heart  can  be  assailed.” 

Long  Nails. — In  a European  picture  of  a fashionable 
Chinaman,  his  fingers  are  tipped  with  lengthy  nails.  Cer- 
tain instances  occur  of  nails  cultivated  to  extraor- 
dinary dimensions,  both  among  men  and  women  in 
China, — to  be  interpreted  as  significant  of  an  easy  life,  or 
of  devotion  to  literature.  Not  unfrequent  samples  of  af- 
fectation of  gentility  like  this  occur,  especially  among  cus- 
tom house  officers,  copyists,  writers,  or  pedants,  that  haunt 
the  houses  of  wealthy  foreigners. 

One  fellow  went  by  the  name  "silver-nailed for,  from 
their  liability  to  be  broken,  he  had  to  shield  his  talons  in 
silver  cases ; and  another’s  claws  were  so  long  that, 
when  he  walked  abroad,  he  had  to  "sleeve  them,”  or  tuck 
them  under  his  wide  sleeves.  Chinese  do  not  clip,  pare,  or 
bite  their  nails,  as  foreigners  do.  But  to  wear  inordinately 
long  nails  can,  by  no  means,  be  said  to  be  a very  common 
practice  in  China.  It  is  the  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

The  Fan. — In  the  use  of  this  there  is  no  exception.  It  is 
a universal  appendage  with  both  sexes  and  all  ranks — in  the 


122 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


southern  parts,  almost  all  the  year  round ; in  other  parts, 
only  in  summer. 

To  a European,  on  his  arrival,  few  articles  will  be  more 
novel  than  the  fan  seen  in  the  hand  or  the  belt  of  male  and 
female,  rich  or  poor,  soldiers,  scholars,  and  priests. 

The  workman  who  can  spare  a hand,  is  industrious  in 
flapping  his  fan  with  the  one  and  laboring  with  the  other. 
An  officer  has  been  seen  going  to  battle  waving  his  fan ; and 
on  the  authority  of  eye-witnesses  of  the  attack  on  the  Bogue 
forts  in  1841,  the  native  military  were  observed  on  those 
battlements  coolly  fanning  themselves  ^^amid  showers  of 
shot  and  shell.’^  Instead  of  a switch  or  cane,  the  fop  in 
China  flourishes  his  fan ; and  the  schoolmaster  turns  it  upon 
the  cranium  or  knuckles  of  the  offending  pupil.  It  appears 
that  the  Japanese  employ  the  article  for  a purpose  never 
witnessed  in  the  Celestial  country — as  Dr.  Siebold  says,  ''In 
Japan,  a fan  presented  upon  a kind  of  salver  to  the  highborn 
criminal,  is  said  to  be  the  form  of  announcing  his  death- 
doom,  and  his  head  is  struck  off  at  the  same  moment  he 
stretches  it  towards  the  fan.” 

The  laborer,  when  he  cannot  use  it,  sticks  it  into  the 
back  of  his  collar  or  girdle,  or  "sleeves  it;”  but  the  man 
who  can  afford  the  luxury,  slings  upon  his  belt  a worked 
silk  case  for  his  fan. 

The  innocent  article  now  spoken  of,  has  less  variety  in 
shape  than  in  the  material  of  which  it  is  made.  Generally 
it  is  round,  or  leaf-like,  or  in  the  form  of  a sector.  The  pat- 
tern is  either  stiff  and  open,  or  pliable  and  folding;  the 
former  made  of  silk,  palm-leaf,  or  feathers — the  latter  usu- 
ally of  paper,  sometimes  of  fine  goose-feathers,  or  of  beau- 
tifully carved  ivory.  Besides  being  fashionable,  one  of  the 
principal  uses  to  which  the  fan  is  appropriated,  is  that  of  a 
screen.  Everywhere,  where  people  cannot  afford  something 
better,  they  may  be  seen  treading  the  streets  under  a broil- 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


123 


ing  sun,  at  98  degrees  in  the  shade,  with  naught  between 
their  bare  heads  and  the  scorching  sun  but  a plain  fan. 
Natives  fan  themselves  and  their  children  to  sleep.  Quite 
as  commonly  it  answers  the  purpose  of  a refrigerator  to  cool 
the  person.  But  so  employed,  it  is  not  flapped  in  the  quick, 
hurried  fashion  of  Europeans,  which  must  occasion  much 
exertion,  and  actually  raise  the  temperature  of  the  body. 
It  is  worked  quietly,  gently,  regularly,  without  exhausting 
one’s  strength.  If  we  mistake  not,  in  the  season  of  heat  and 
mosquitoes,  no  punishment  could  be  severer  to  a Chinaman 
than  to  deprive  him  of  this  valuable  implement.  The  bulk 
of  the  people,  living  as  they  do  in  narrow  lanes,  low  houses, 
and  unventilated  rooms,  during  the  extreme  summer 
months  find  this  article  indispensable  to  their  comfort. 

The  native  passion  for  pictures,  drawings,  and  auto- 
graphs, has  large  scope  in  the  various  fans  abroad.  Made 
of  silk  and  satin,  they  admit  of  a great  deal  of  embroidery- 
work.  Paper  fans  have  fancy  sketches  on  them,  chiefly 
flowers.  An  infinite  lot  is  constantly  on  sale  with  maps  and 
outlines  engraven  of  one  or  other  principal  city  in  the  em- 
pire— Nanking,  Pekin,  or  Canton ; and,  having  every 
street  and  lane  named,  it  forms  a useful  ^'guide”  to  a trav- 
eler visiting  those  cities.  Others  have  the  ^flions”  and 
scenes  of  particular  localities  sketched  out.  There  are  few 
that  are  without  choice  and  classic  sentences  written  on 
them.  The  English  taste  for  preserving  in  albums  tho 
souvenirs  of  select  friends,  has  its  counterpart  in  the  pas- 
sion of  gentlemen  in  China,  who,  to  obtain  the  autograph 
of  a friend,  have  only  to  purchase  a plain  fan,  in  which  the 
^^elder  brother”  is  requested  to  pen  a sentence  or  two,  sign 
and  stamp  it  with  his  seal.  This  done,  it  is  kept  or  carried 
about  by  the  owner  as  a valuable  treasure — a rare  curiosity. 

Pictures  and  Rice-paper  Drawings. — What  must  be 
evident  to  a visitor  at  any  Chinese  port,  is  the  native  taste 


124 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


for  pictures,  and  the  desire  of  shopkeepers  to  gratify  what 
they  well  know  to  be  a passion  too  among  all  strangers, 
for  drawings,  paintings,  etc.  But  the  best  specimens  to  be 
obtained  at  Macao  are  not  to  be  taken  as  fair  samples  of 
the  native  unassisted  art.  At  Canton,  Macao,  and  Hong- 
kong, there  has  been  for  years  so  much  imitation  of  foreign 
productions,  and  not  a little  improvement  has  gradually 
crept  over  the  designs  of  the  native  artists,  from  the  in- 
fluence of  Chinnery,  an  Englishman  now  deceased.  That 
gentleman  was  for  many  years  resident  in  Macao,  and, 
much  to  his  credit,  lent  his  aid  in  suitable  suggestions  and 
instructions  to  some  of  the  Canton  draughtsmen ; Lamqua, 
for  instance,  known  to  foreigners  for  his  portrait-painting, 
and  his  younger  brother,  Tingqua,  for  his  sketches  and 
miniatures.  The  effect  of  this  upon  the  native  artists  of 
Canton  may  easily  be  guessed. 

Nevertheless,  genuine  specimens  of  uneducated  artists 
are  to  be  found  in  the  south,  but  especially  at  the  ports  far- 
ther north. 

The  rude  designs  of  their  pencillings  are  such  as  may 
be  seen  on  the  commonest  ware,  the  finest  porcelain,  wood- 
engravings,  or  wall-scrolls.  Although  the  want  of  perspec- 
tive is  a glaring  blunder  in  all  their  delineations,  yet,  from 
the  wood-engravings  in  their  topographies,  or  landscape 
sketches  in  their  works  on  husbandry,  which  every  foreigner 
meets  with  now-a-days,  it  is  clear  that  experience  has 
taught  some  of  them,  that,  in  describing  the  more  distant 
objects,  these  should  lessen  in  dimensions  as  they  recede 
from  the  point  of  view.  But  they  have  not  detected  that 
the  more  remote  the  objects  become,  to  give  effect  to  them, 
the  m.ore  should  their  outlines  diminish  in  distinctness.  Well 
does  Dr.  Williams  of  Canton  remark,  ^'Objects  are  as  much 
exhibited  as  possible  on  a flat  surface,  as  if  the  painter  drew 
his  picture  from  a balloon,  and  looked  at  the  country  with  a 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


125 


vertical  sun  shining  above  him/'  Accordingly,  in  the 
grouping  of  different  figures  together,  they  fail  ridiculous- 
ly. Only  in  single  parts  and  objects  do  they  hit  any  like- 
ness. In  the  ideography  of  their  written  language,  the  pic- 
torial representations  of  some  of  their  characters,  though 
in  short-hand;  show  a singular  similitude  to  the  objects  in- 
tended. 

For  fidelity  in  sketching  single  objects,  and  setting 
them  off  in  colors,  perhaps  they  are  most  happy  in  the 
painting  of  dresses,  birds,  insects,  and  flowers.  Here  they 
appear  to  copy  nature  with  tolerable  exactness,  and  are 
greatly  assisted  by  their  various  bright  and  gay  colors. 
Everywhere  you  find,  from  the  pencil  of  Chinamen 
never  instructed  by  a European  master,  pictorial  represen- 
tations of  the  attitude  of  birds  and  the  position  of  shrubs, 
that  will  surprise  and  please  you,  as  unexpectedly  natural 
and  drawn  to  life. 

In  their  unassisted  essays  at  portrait-painting  they  are 
certainly  unsuccessful;  their  delineations  of  the  ‘'human 
face  divine"  are  so  expressionless,  and  of  the  human  figure 
so  out  of  all  proportion  and  unnatural.  A piece  with  a 
group  of  human  beings  in  it  presents  to  your  eye  a carica- 
ture ludicrous  in  the  extreme.  Still,  the  Chinese  are  fond 
of  pictures  of  men  and  things.  Many  a family,  bereaved 
of  its  paterfamilias,  is  particular  to  have  a portrait  of  the 
deceased  hung  up  in  the  center  hall  of  his  residence. 

These  may  be  had  at  any  hour  and  any  place  for  a mere 
trifle.  Pictures  for  such  an  occasion  are  always  on  sale, 
though  the  only  similitude  they  bear  to  the  encofflned  is 
a distressing  opacity  and  lifelessness.  Of  course  their  great 
1 men  come  under  the  pencil  of  the  artist ; the  fabulous  heroes 
I particularly.  Recently,  foreigners  of  all  grades — sailors 
and  soldiers  especially — have  not  been  less  honored,  al- 
though presented  in  the  most  comic  shapes  and  costumes ; 


126  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

• 

and  British  men-of-war,  and  “smoke-ships”  or  steamboats;, 
are  painted  on  paper  fans  and  on  cloth  in  shapeless  forms 
and  outrageous  daubs.  The  fantastic  forms  and  colors  in 
which  British  subjects  figure  on  their  picture-books  might 
suggest  that  the  pencil  had  purposely  drawn  pasquinades 
and  caricatures  of  Englishmen,  if  we  were  not  convinced 
that  the  native  artists  are  so  far  in  the  rear. 

The  local  government  of  Pekin  has  an  “Imperial  Hall, 
in  which  there  hang  “portraits  of  emperors,  empresses, 
sages,  worthies,  and  celebrated  ministers. 

Sir  John  Davis,  in  his  “Sketches,”  observes : “It  would 
be  the  highest  and  most  criminal  act  of  disrespect  in  the 
greatest  of  his  subjects  to  possess  a portrait  or  a visible 
representation  of  the  ‘Son  of  Heaven,’  the  Emperor. 
This  is  not  quite  correct;  for  many  native  gentlemen,  of- 
cials  and  private,  have  had  possession  of  portraits  of 
the  Emperor,  and  have  not  concealed  the  matter.  But, 
although  they  possesse'd  these  pictures  of  imperial  majesty, 
there  was  no  pretense  that  they  resembled  the  person  on 
the  throne.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Tai-ping 
insurrection,  the  European  world  (certainly  not  the 
Chinese)  has  been  entertained  with  portraits  of  the  present 
reigning  emperor  and  of  his  insurgent  antagonist.  It  is 
not  at  all  improbable  that  the  Chinese  themselves  have 
never  seen  those  portraits : and,  from  the  general  style  of 
portraits  taken  by  the  Chinese,  it  may  be  confidently  as- 
serted that  these  pictorial  illustrations  offered  to  the  English 
public  have  nothing  of  similitude  to  the  grand  personages 
intended.  Yet  the  writer  of  “Christianity  in  China,”  with 
the  two  pictures  before  him,  separately  engraven  on  his 
title-page,  quietly  sits  down  to  elicit  out  of  them  the  in- 
dividual characters  of  the  Emperor  Hien-fung  and  his  rival 
Tai-ping-wang,  and  draws  a contrast  in  the  following  quota- 
tion: “Two  portraits,  one  of  the  emperor  in  China,  and 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS  127 

the  other  of  the  insurgent  chief,  the  crowned  and  the  un- 
crowned; and,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  physiognomical 
representations,  we  had  almost  said  the  woman  and  the  man, 
the  poltroon  and  the  hero.  Supposing  the  accuracy  of  the 
representations,  we  should  deem  the  bpy-emperor  a weak- 
ling,  and  the  insurgent  chief  a man  fit  to  lead  the  armies  of 
an  empire  against  a Caesar  or  a Napoleon.  Commanding 
intellect,  deep  penetration,  reflection,  comprehension,  in- 
tellectual resources,  directness,  determination,  dignity,  dar- 
ing--these  are  some  of  the  attributes  which  the  portrait  of 
the  insurgent  betokens.  It  is  the  finest  Chinese  head  we 
have  seen;  in  fact,  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  Chinese.” 

Picture-painting  in  China  is  done  on  almost  every  kind 
of  surface.  On  ivory,  glass,  and  paper  they  are  very  suc- 
cessful. Paintings  on  leaves  are  remarkably  curious,  but 
rare,  and  high  in  price.  The  tissue  on  which  this  latter 
style  is  wrought  is  obtained  from  various  kinds  of  trees — 
leaves  of  very  close  net-work  being  preferred.  After  the 
soft  part  has  been  removed  from  the  leaf  by  maceration,  the 
reticulated  skeleton  is  thoroughly  dried  and  covered  with 
isinglass,  and  then  the  colors  are  laid  on  with  pretty  effect. 

But  of  their  drawings  those  on  “rice-paper”  are  most 
admired  in  Europe.  By  the  name  “rice-paper”  the  idea  is 
conveyed  that  the  soft,  brittle  ground  of  velvety  surface  on 
which  the  brilliant  colors  are  laid,  is  made  from  rice-pulp. 
This,  however,  is  incorrect.  It  is  a pith  of  a plant  of  the 
bread-fruit  genus,  brought  from  the  western  parts  of  China, 
chiefly  to  Canton,  where  the  manufacture  of  this  paper  and 
painting  gives  employment  to  several  thousand  hands.  The 
outline  is  first  laid  on  in  India  ink,  by  pressure.  Then  the 
rough  delineation  is  filled  up  with  the  varieties  of  exquisite 
coloring  matter. 

Processions.  Without  question  the  Chinese  are  fond 
of  processions  but  more  in  the  south  than  in  the  north. 


128 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Both  at  Macao  and  Canton,  there  are  corporations  that  go 
to  enormous  expense  in  the  outfit  of  these  parades.  Chiefly 
they  are  got  up  in  honor  of  the  genii  loci,  which  for  the  oc- 
casion are  ornamented  and  promenaded.  The  members  of 
the  clubs  are  dressed  out  very  gaily,  and  march  forth  as 
attendants  on  their  penates,  with  all  the  pomp  and  tinsel 
they  can  muster;  silk  and  satin  flags,  most  elegantly  em- 
broidered; bands  of  miusic;  tables  laden  with  sacrificial 
offerings,  decked  with  flowers,  images,  and  curiosities  of 
every  variety.  To  add  to  the  diversions,  groups  of  pedes- 
trians are  equipped  in  various  military  uniforms — boys 
mounted  on  ponies  or  hobby-horses  not  larger  than  mas- 
tiffs, and  aping  the  air,  dress,  and  authority  of  mandarins, 
and  young  girls,  like  fairies,  perched  on  twigs  and  branches 
of  trees  resting  on  men’s  shoulders. 

Ivory  Balls. — Next,  what  shall  we  say  of  the  carved  con- 
centric ivory  balls — ten,  twelve,  or  more,  cut  out,  one  with- 
in the  other?  It  has  long  puzzled  people  how  so  intricate  a 
piece  of  workmanship  is  fabricated.  It  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  originally  they  are  balls  cut  into  halves,  so 
strongly  and  nicely  gummed  or  cemented  together,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  detect  the  junction.  And  we  have  seen  it 
deliberately  stated  that  attempts  have  been  made  by  some 
to  dissolve  the  union  by  soaking  and  boiling  a concentric 
ball  in  oil — of  course,  to  no  purpose. 

The  plain  solution  of  the  enigma  obtained  from  more 
than  one  native  artist,  is  the  following: — A piece  of  ivory, 
made  perfectly  round,  has  several  conical  holes  worked  into 
it,  so  that  their  several  apices  meet  at  the  center  of  the  glob- 
ular mass.  The  workman  then  coxnmences  to  detach  the  in- 
nermost sphere  of  all.  This  is  done  by  inserting  a tool  into 
each  hole,  with  a point  bent  and  very  sharp.  That  instru- 
ment is  so  arranged  as  to  cut  away  or  scrape  the  ivory 
through  each  hole,  at  equi-distances  from  the  surface.  The 


Chinese  Smoking  Opium. 


J 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


129 


implement  works  away  at  the  bottom  of  each  conical  hole 
successively,  until  the  incisions  meet.  In  this  way  the  inner- 
most ball  is  separated ; and  to  smooth,  carve,  and  ornament 
it,  its  various  faces  are,  one  after  the  other,  brought  oppo- 
site one  of  the  largest  holes.  The  other  balls,  larger  as  they 
near  the  outer  surface,  are  each  cut,  wrought,  and  polished 
precisely  in  the  same  manner.  The  outermost  ball  of  course 
is  done  last  of  all.  As  for  the  utensils  in  this  operation,  the 
size  of  the  shaft  of  the  tool,  as  well  as  of  the  bend  at  its 
point,  depends  on  the  depth  of  each  successive  ball  from  the 
surface.  Such  is  their  mode  of  carving  one  of  the  most 
delicate  and  labyrinthic  specimens  of  workmanship  to  be 
found  in  China  or  elsewhere.  These  ‘ Vheels  within  wheels” 
are  intended  chiefly  for  sale  to  foreigners:  and  numerous 
specimens  annually  are  sent  to  England  and  America. 

The  Lantern. — There  is  another  article  on  which  there 
is  no  little  ingenuity  shown  by  the  Chinese,  namely,  that 
which  figures  with  some  prominence  in  European  notions 
of  China — the  lantern.  Probably  no  article  of  furniture  in 
‘‘the  Celestial  Empire”  is  more  in  use.  Upon  it,  as  upon 
other  things,  the  native  workman  illustrates  the  skill  and 
industry  with  which  he  can  elaborate,  and  at  the  same  time 
display  a degree  of  taste  in  the  variety  of  forms  and  the 
fanciful  colorings  in  which  the  lantern  appears.  We  are  not 
now  speaking  of  what  is  everywhere  to  be  found — the  plain 
candle  or  the  simple  lamp — but  what  they  call  ^'tung 
loong”  “lamp-basket,”  “candle-cage,”  the  cage  or  basket  in 
which  the  light  is  lodged.  It  is  of  all  sizes  and  shapes,  and 
constructed  of  every  sort  of  material.  In  dimensions,  it 
ranges  from  the  half-farthing  toy  for  a child,  or  the  penny 
hand-lantern  for  a poor  man,  up  to  the  gorgeous  specimen 
as  large  as  a moderate-sized  sitting-room,  12  or  16  feet  in 
diameter,  worth  $500.  This  article  may  be  had  in  every 
imaginable  form,  round,  square,  irregular,  and  like  to  birds. 


130 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


beasts,  and  fishes.  So  likewise  the  variety  of  material : the 
frame  is  generally  of  wood  or  bamboo,  or  wire,  or  basket- 
work — overlaid  with  silk,  or  paper,  or  glass,  or  horn,  or 
cloth,  or  gauze  or  glue ; upon  which  we  have  decoration,  or 
carving,  or  embroidery,  or  gilding,  or  painting. 

In  these  ^‘cages’"  oil  or  candle  is  used ; but  of  gas-light 
they  are  totally  ignorant.  Their  surprise  and  ecstasy  in 
witnessing  a good  specimen  of  it  is  unbounded.  A native 
of  China,  himself  a great  traveler  in  his  own  country,  on 
visiting  England  some  time  since,  was  remarkably  taken 
with  this  mysterious  light.  And  in  a few  fugitive  notes  on 
England  and  the  English,  published  among  his  countrymen, 
he  makes  the  following  remarks  on  this  great  curiosity 
‘^On  the  roadside  there  stand’  lamp-posts,  with  beautiful 
lanterns,  that,  when  lit  at  night,  illumine  the  whole  expanse 
of  the  heavens.  The  gas  which  burns  in  these  lamps  is  pro- 
duced from  coal,  and,  without  question,  is  a most  wonderful 
discovery;  it  jets  forth  a flame  of  light  brighter  than  either 
the  wax  candle  or  the  oil  lamp  can  give.  By  it  whole  fami- 
lies enjoy  light,  and  thousands  of  houses  are  simultaneously 
illuminated.  In  all  the  market-places  and  public  thorough- 
fares, it  is  as  clear  and  bright  at  midnight  as  at  noontide, 
and,  if  I mistake  not,  as  gay  as  our  Feast  of  Lanterns.  In 
fact,  a city  that  is  so  illuminated  might  well  be  called  'a 
nightless  city;’  for  you  may  wander  about  it  till  break  of 
day  without  carrying  a lantern,  and,  go  where  you  please, 
you  meet  with  no  interruption.” 

Some  lanterns  are  peculiar  in  construction.  There  is  a 
handy  one,  the  frame  of  which  is  upon  hinges,  or  clasps. 
When  not  used,  it  can  fold  up,  to  be  put  into  a corner  or 
a traveling-chest.  The  one  in  general  use  is  the  transparent 
lantern.  This  is  constructed  of  long,  thin  splinters  slit 
from  bamboos,  and  woven  into  a network  upon  a plain 
frame.  Such  work  gives  employment  to  innumerable 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS  131 


hands.  Care  is  taken  to  have  the  open  meshes  of  the  lattice- 
work  nearly  of  the  same  size.  The  whole  frame  is  glued 
over,  to  keep  the  splints  together;  and  when  dry,  a sheet 
of  fine  thin  paper  is  gummed  over  the  frame.  A coat  or 
two  of  glue  and  varnish  is  then  brushed  over  the  whole. 
This,  on  drying,  gives  a transparency  to  the  lantern.  To 
finish  the  article,  a piece  of  wire  is  tied  over  the  top,  by 
which  it  is  slung  on  a stick,  long  enough  for  the  purchaser 
to  hold  it  by  as  he  walks  about.  Both  the  top  and  the 
bottom  of  the  lantern  are  open.  The  socket  for  the  candle 
is  fitted  in  at  the  bottom,  to  be  taken  out  and  in  at  pleasure. 
To  fix  it  in  its  place,  this  socket  has  a light  frame  of  wire 
stuck  in  it,  which  rises  up  through  the  larger  opening  at 
the  top,  where  it  is  hooked  on  to  the  lantern-stick. 

There  is  what  is  called  ''the  dragon  lantern.''  This  is 
brought  out  only  in  spring  and  autumn,  at  a festival  ob- 
served throughout  the  empire,  for  propitiating  some  fabu- 
lous monsters  of  the  deep  and  the  valley.  This  huge 
"dragon"  representative  is  composed  of  sixty  or  eighty 
painted  lanterns,  jointed  together,  each  of  the  size  and  shape 
of  a beer-barrel,  with  large  tapers  stuck  in  the  middle.  The 
length  of  the  symbolical  figure  often  exceeds  lOO  feet.  At 
the  one  end  there  is  an  enormous  head  with  gaping  jaws ; 
at  the  other  a tremendous  sweeping  tail.  To  each  joint 
there  is  fixed  a pole  for  supporting  the  lengthy  train.  In 
that  manner  it  is  carried  at  night  through  the  streets,  or 
from  village  to  village,  the  bearers  as  they  walk  in  proces- 
sion conveying  to  the  corpus  of  the  "dragon"  a remark- 
ably undulating  movement,  sometimes  wriggling,  some- 
times writhing.  As  one  watches  the  "dragon  proces- 
sion" at  night  crossing  a flat  country  and  through  dark 
lanes,  it  has  a most  singular  appearance,  accompanied  as  it 
always  is  in  Chinese  waits,  by  men  and  boys  shouting  and 
screaming,  with  drums,  gongs,  and  crackers,  all  out  of  tune. 


132 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Among  lantern  curiosities  in  China,  must  be  mentioned 
the  tsow-na-tung,  ‘'the  stalking-horse  lantern,’'  occasionally 
used  on  festive  occasions.  It  is  large,  and  sometimes  made 
of  glass,  with  sockets  for  lighted  tapers  interspersed  within 
the  massive  form.  The  interior  has  three  or  four  light 
circular  frames  of  wire,  the  one  above  the  other,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  whole  figure,  each  balanced  upon  small 
pivots.  In  these  wiry  globes  there  are  small  wind-flaps,  so 
arranged  that  the  draught  of  air  rushing  up  from  beneath 
sets  them  in  revolution ; and  upon  these  light  cylinders  there 
are  perched  figures  of  gaily  dressed  women  or  warriors, 
horses,  and  other  animals.  It  is  a fanciful  automaton,  in 
certain  localities  very  popular. 

The  common  uses  to  which  the  lantern  in  China  is  put 
are  numerous — some  quite  unknown  in  the  European 
world.  At  night,  it  is  unusual  for  the  humblest  individual 
to  go  the  length  of  a street  without  this  article.  Even  when 
the  moon  is  at  its  full,  the  lantern  is  considered  indispensa- 
ble. After  a purchaser  has  selected  his  lantern,  he  has  a 
painter  to  adorn  it  with  flowers  or  figures,  or  some  wise 
maxim,  or  he  writes  his  own  name  upon  it.  Sedan-bearers 
and  night  watchmen  always  carry  their  lanterns ; and 
officers  traveling  at  night  do  not  fail  to  display  their  titles 
upon  huge  “cages”  borne  before  them.  The  lantern  is  made 
into  toys  for  children,  in  the  form  of  fishes,  birds,  and 
horses ; and  not  unfrequently  an  urchin,  yet  scarcely  able 
to  walk,  has  his  lantern-horse  or  phoenix. 

English  officers,  who  themselves  took  part  in  repelling 
a midnight  attack  on  the  British  troops  in  possession  of  the 
city  of  Ningpo  in  1842,  report  that,  as  theChinese  enemy, 
to  the  number  of  3,000  or  4,000,  attacked  the  city  gates, 
they  carried  lighted  lanterns  overhead,  so  that  they  became 
marks  for  the  British  muskets ! 

Chopsticks  and  Food. — An  essential  utensil  with  a Chi- 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS  133 


naman  is  a pair  of  ''chopsticks/’  as  foreigners  call  them, 
from  the  nimbleness  with  which  the  instruments  are  used.* 
For  the  same  reason,  they  go  among  the  natives  by  the 
name  kw^  ai  tsze,  "quick  lads.”  Originally  they  were  desig- 
nated choOy  the  character  for  which  is  compounded  of  the 
two  signs  for  "bamboo”  and  "to  help,”  meaning  "bamboo 
aids ;”  called  so,  probably,  because  at  first  they  were  made 
of  bamboo.  In  these  days  they  are  made  of  common  wood, 
or  the  best  ivory  or  silver.  Chopsticks  consist  of  two 
smooth  sticks  of  the  size  of  a long  lead-pencil,  the  upper 
half  square,  the  lower  rounded.  The  two  are  taken  up  by 
the  middle,  and  in  the  right  hand.  They  are  adjusted  thus : 
the  one  "nimble  lad,”  at  its  upper  end,  lies  in  the  hollow  of 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  and  at  its  lower  is  fixed  in  be^ 
tween  the  tops  of  the  middle  and  third  fingers.  This  one  is 
stationary.  The  other  "lad”  is  movable ; it  is  held  only  by 
the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  forefinger.  The  couple  act  the 
part  of  pincers,  and  serve  for  picking  up  meat,  fish,  or  veg- 
etables already  minced.  In  eating  cooked  rice,  or  any  other 
grain,  the  bowl  is  brought  to  the  mouth,  and  "the  sticks” 
are  used  in  a particularly  dexterous  fashion  to  shovel  in 
mouthfuls  of  the  grain. 

In  the  higher  ranks,  Chinese  tables  are  sometimes  sup- 
plied with  a kind  of  spoon,  generally  porcelain,  rarely  silver, 
— in  shape  resembling  a child’s  "pap-spoon.”  It  is  fash- 
ionable, too,  with  the  Chinese  dandy  to  sport  his  "quick- 
lads’  sheath”  dangling  from  his  girdle.  Often  this  is  a case 
ornamented  with  tortoise-shell,  and  not  unusually  it  carries 
a long  knife. 

The  question  is  oft  repeated:  "Don’t  the  Chinese  eat 
rats  ? Do  they  devour  mice  ?”  etc.  On  this,  we  observe,  that 
in  their  cooking,  and  their  articles  of  diet  too,  they  can  im- 
part to  us  some  suitable  lessons,  and  instruct  even  a Soyer, 
— especially  in  places  and  times  of  scarcity.  At  the  same 

*‘^Chop-chop’^  being  used  in  the  Canton-English  brogue  for 
"quick-quick.^^  


134 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


time,  we  might  give  facts  which  would  compel  all  to  exclaim 
— doubtless  as  a Chinese  would  exclaim  of  the  English,  if 
he  were  positively  assured  that  we  eat  ox-flesh,  or  if  the 
contents  of  our  huckster  sausages  were  exposed  to  his 
view, — ^^Non  est  disputandum  de  gustihusT  But  of  roasted 
rats  and  stewed  mice,  or  of  animals  of  this  order  cooked  or 
eaten  in  any  shape,  we  have  never  seen  the  semblance,  never 
heard  a hint  among  the  Chinese  themselves. 

A man  may  be  cast  down  to  the  lowest  depths  of  pover- 
ty, when  he  is  glad  enough  to  scrape  and  swallow  the  dregs 
and  offscourings  about  him  ; and,  in  a season  of  sore  famine, 
hundreds  in  a town  may  be  driven  to  devour  what  reptiles 
they  may  be  able  to  catch.  This  may  happen  in  any  coun- 
try;— but,  for  that  reason,  to  rank  such  abhorrent  articles 
among  the  daily  provisions  at  a Chinese  mess,  is  not  only 
heedless,  it  is  unfair. 

We  find  in  the  Alta  California  of  June,  1853,  that  a 
crusade  was  commenced  against  the  Chinese  in  California, 
and  one  ground  of  assault  was  the  reported  addiction  of  the 
Chinese  folk  to  rats,  lizards,  etc.  The  editor  of  that  paper 
wrote  a leader  on  the  15th  of  June,  of  which  the  following 
is  an  extract : 

‘Tf  there  is  one  class  of  ‘nasty  furriners’ — as  Paddy  pro- 
nounced all  the  Mexicans  during  the  late  war — more  ill- 
favored,  unfortunate,  and  forlorn  among  us  than  another, 
it  certainly  must  be  the  Chinese.  The  length  and  breadth 
of  popular  sentiment  against  them  in  California  is  as  a wide 
gulf,  separating  them  more  and  more  every  day  from  the 
hope  of  obtaining  established  rights  and  privileges  as  citi- 
zens in  the  state.  The  depth  of  degradation  to  which  they 
are  fallen  in  public  opinion  is  as  the  bottom  of  a deep  pit, 
considerably  beyond  the  reach  of  means  of  extrication. 
They  are  sunk  immeasurably  lower  than  the  native  Indians, 
in  the  estimation  of  the  miners, — lower  than  the  beasts  that 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


135 


prey  upon  the  flesh  of  inferior  animals ; for  the  bear,  it  is 
said,  will  turn  from  tainted  meat,  whereas  ^John'  despises 
nothing  of  the  creeping  or  crawling  kind.  Rats,  lizards, 
mud-terrapins,  rank  and  indigestible  shell-fish,  'and  such 
small  deer,’  have  been,  and  continue  to  be,  the  food  of  the 
'no  ways  particklar  Celestial,’  where  flour,  beef,  and  bacon, 
and  other  fare  suitable  to  the  stomachs  of  'white  folk’ 
abound.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  therefore,  that  tfie 
habits  of  the  Chinese  in  California  should  excite  ineffable 
disgust,  and  turn  the  stomach  of  the  stoutest  Anglo-Saxon.” 
A week  after,  a reply  from  a Chinese  appeared, — written, 
we  believe,  by  a former  pupil  of  the  Morrision  school  at 
Macao.  We  make  the  following  selection  from  it : 

"Mr.  Editor: — I am  a Chinaman,  and  thank  Shangti 
(God)  that  I am.  I was  taught  to  read  and  write  after  the 
English  custom  by  a missionary  at  Macao,  whom  I also 
thank,  as  I can  understand  and  appreciate  the  numerous 
acts  of  kindness  shown  to  my  countrymen  by  the  great  Fa 
Kee  (American)  people,  especially  the  newspapers,  whose 
delight  it  is  to  stigmatize  my  poor  countrymen  as  a set  of 
'nasty  furriners  {Altay  15th  June),  who  are  sunk  so  low  in 
the  depth  of  degradation  that  extrication  is  impossible — 
lower  than  the  digger  Indian,  or  the  beasts  of  the  field  that 
prey  upon  the  flesh  of  inferior  animals ;’  'despising  nothing 
of  the  creeping  or  crawling  kind ;’  'rats,  lizards,  rank  and 
indigestible  shell-fish,  have  been  and  still  continue  to  be  the 
food  of  the  no  ways  particklar  Celestial;’  'utter  inapplica- 
bility and  aversion  to  follow  those  pursuits  which  our  peo- 
ple insist  they  can  only  be  useful  in  filling.’  Now,  what  I 
want  is  your  proofs  to  make  good  your  unkind  statements. 
When  or  where  did  you  ever  see  any  of  my  countrymen 
eat  rat,  lizard,  or  earth-worm  ? Have  you  ever  visited  any 
of  our  provision  stores  ? Did  you  ever  see  anything  of  the 
kind?  Did  you  ever  take  the  trouble  of  investigating,  as 


136 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


you  ought  to  have  done  before  condemning  in  such  un- 
feeling language  our  manners  and  customs?  Or  why  do 
you  wish  to  create  a feeling  of  prejudice  against  my  coun- 
trymen through  the  columns  of  your  paper?  Are  we  not 
already  sufficiently  ill-treated  by  those  that  profess  to  know 
better — so  much  so  that  we  cannot  pass  along  the  streets 
without  being  subject  to  insult  many  times  of  the  vilest 
kind?  Now,  that  you  may  know  the  truth  concerning  some 
of  our  customs,  know  then  (which  likely  you  do  know),  that 
our  empire  numbers  nearly,  if  not  quite,  one-half  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  earth ; in  many  places  it  is  so  densely  popu- 
lated that  it  should  not  be  considered  a thing  of  such  mon- 
strosity that  some  would  be  compelled  to  eat  rats  to  prolong 
their  lives.  But  I have  never  seen  it  done,  and  I ought  to 
know  and  understand  as  well  as  any  one  the  manners  and 
customs  that  have  been  handed  down  to  us  since  the  days  of 
Hu-Lou  Tue.  Then,  why  should  our  whole  race  be  re- 
proached for  doing  what  but  a few  ever  did  ? and  what  you 
think  are  worms,  etc.,  are  nothing  more  than  a specie  of 
crab  or  lobster,  and  other  kind  of  meat  cut  fine  and  dried, 
which  you  are  pleased  to  term  rank  and  indigestible,  fit  only 
for  the  ostrich  stomachs  of  ^ohn.’ 

‘‘Now,  is  it  not  an  admitted  fact,  that  goo'd  health  de- 
pends upon  the  kind  of  food  used  ? Compare  then  the  sick- 
ness and  deaths  of  our  countrymen  to  that  of  the  would-be 
Christianized  and  civilized  nations  in  California — their  num- 
ber is  as  eight  to  one.  Now,  who  eats  the  indigestible 
food?^’ 

It  is  not  our  object  to  lengthen  this  paragraph  by  addi- 
tional remarks  on  the  diet  of  the  people.  We  have  only  to 
add  a word  or  two  on  ‘ffiird’s-nest  soup.^’  The  natives  are 
doubtless  fond  of  gelatinous  stews  and  broths.  On  this 
account,  fish-maws  and  sharks’  fins  stand  high  in  the  esti- 
mate of  gourmands  ; but  neither  so  high  as  the  edible 


CUSTOMS  AND  MANNERS 


137 


^^bird’s-nest/’  When  stewed,  or  mixed  with  other  meats, 
this  is  by  no  means  unpalatable.  ^'Much  misconception  for- 
merly existed  in  regard  to  the  substance  of  which  these 
nests  are  composed,  but  recent  scientific  experiments  have 
established  the  fact  that  they  consist  of  a species  of  seaweed 
(or  rather  of  the  mucilage  of  a seaweed),  only  found  on  the 
coast  of  Java  and  other  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
The  quality  of  the  nest  varies  considerably,  according  to 
the  situation  in  which  it  is  found.  Those  who  are  connois- 
seurs in  the  trade  will  select  those  nests  which  are  found 
in  the  deepest  recesses  of  the  rocks.  These  are  remarkable 
for  their  great  transparency,  and,  from  being  continually 
exposed  to  an  atmosphere  that  is  impregnated  with  nitre, 
they  necessarily  imbibe  a nitrous  taste.’'* 

The  bird  that  supplies  this  whimsical  luxury  for  the 
Chinese  table  is  a small  swallow,  the  Hirundo  esculenfa, 
which  builds  its  nest  on  steep  precipices  and  rocks  that 
overhang  the  sea.  It  is  found  almost  only  in  the  islands  of 
Malaysia.  But  the  price  paid  to  gratify  this  curious  Chinese 
taste  is  very  high.  To  procure  the  delicacy,  the  risk  to  life 
alone  is  tremendous — from  the  lofty,  deep,  and  dangerous 
caverns  frequented  by  the  swallows ; — and,  when  brought  to 
the  Chinese  market,  the  value  is  enormous — the  finest  kind 
often  being  sold  at  $4,000  per  100  lbs.  For  this  reason  it 
can  appear  only  on  the  tables  of  the  wealthy,  and  is  not  a 
common  dish  with  other  classes. 


*''Rambles  in  Java.” 


138 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


CHAPTER  VII 

REAL  LIFE  IN  NINGPO 

Perhaps  no  more  vivid  portrayal  of  life  in  a typical  Chi- 
nese city  has  ever  been  offered  to  the  public  than  Re.  Wm. 
C.  Milne's  account  of  his  visit  to  Ningpo.  He  writes  as  fol- 
lows : 

'‘Having  canvassed  and  discussed  the  general  views  en- 
tertained by  'outer  barbarians\about  'the  Celestials/  may 
I invite  the  reader  now  to  accompany  me  to  some  parts  of 
China,  where  he  may  have  an  insight  into  the  real  condi- 
tion of  'the  Chinese  as  they  are.’ 

"As  soon  after  landing  as  possible,  I made  my  way  for 
the  west  gate  of  the  city,  within  which  there  is  a lagoon 
called  Hoo-se,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  which  stood  the  family 
residence  of  Dr.  Chang.  This  was  a native  practitioner  I 
had  met  some  months  previously  at  Tinghai,  between  whom 
and  myself  there  had  grown  a warm  friendship.  The  sight 
of  a solitary  Englishman  in  the  streets,  a good  while  after 
sundown,  created  some  stir.  Curiosity  was  awakened ; and 
police-runners  hastened  with  most  pressing  inquiries,  who 
I was,  and  what  my  object  in  visiting  Ningpo? 

"I  jostled  through  the  crowds,  and  at  length,  after  a 
weary  trudge  through  innumerable  streets  and  lanes, 
reached  my  friend’s  house  safe  and  sound,  heartily  wel- 
comed by  himself  and  family.  However,  I had  scarcely 
been  seated,  when  messenger  after  messenger  from  the  prin- 
cipal offices  arrived,  repeating  the  inquiries  about  my  name, 
objects,  and  attendants.  Perceiving  the  anxiety  that  was 
abroad  in  consequence  of  my  sudden  appearance,  I thought 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


139 


it  advisable  officially  to  apprise  the  chief  officer,  the  prefect 
of  the  department,  of  my  arrival,  and  intrusted  my  host’s 
eldest  son  with  my  card  and  compliments  for  his  worship. 
The  youth  returned  in  an  hour  with  the  prefect’s  card  and 
congratulations ; and,  in  the  course  of  the  same  evening, 
one  of  his  confidentials  came  with  kind  messages,  and  an 
invitation  to  wait  upon  him  the  following  day. 

‘'On  awaking  next  morning,  I was  rather  taken  with  the 
pleasant  site  of  my  host’s  cottage,  built  on  the  side  of  a 
busy  road  and  the  brink  of  a city  lake,  at  times  the  scene 
of  much  life  and  gaiety,  and  its  open  front  set  with  a row  of 
overhanging  willows  that  threw  an  agreeable  shade  over  the 
humble  dwelling. 

"While  we  were  at  breakfast,  the  few,  who  from  an  early 
hour  had  been  loitering  about  the  house  to  catch  the  first 
glimpse  of  the  foreigner,  became  a multitude.  The  door- 
screen  was  of  no  avail;  and  the  paper  windows  were  all 
pierced.  Each  hole  and  corner  showed  an  eye  of  curiosity. 

"The  venerable  doctor  entreated  his  fellow-citizens  to 
be  a little  more  polite  to  an  English  visitor,  and  tried  to 
remonstrate  with  some  for  their  want  of  good  breeding. 
But  it  was  all  unavailing.  The  people  would  gratify  their 
curiosity  if  they  could ; and  the  crowd  still  increased.  How- 
ever, there  was  no  noise,  no  rushing,  no  crushing.  They 
looked  on  in  silence,  wondering,  as  they  made  observations, 
how  unlike  the  foreigner  was  to  the  representations  they 
had  seen  in  paint  or  read  in  proclamations ; — his  face  a little 
different  from  theirs ; his  hair  and  his  dress  very  different. 
But  he  was  not  ‘red-haired.’  He  was  not  ‘without  joints.’ 
He  was  not  ‘black-faced.’  He  was  not  ‘a  bear’  nor  ‘a 
monkey.’  He  was  not  ‘fierce,’  nor  was  he  ‘a  devil.’  He 
could  sit  and  talk  Chinese.  He  was  there  eating  Chinese 
food  with  Chinese  friends,  and  could  use  the  ‘quick  lads’  as 
well  as  any  of  them.  ‘Well!  is  this  really  an  Englishman?’ 


140 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


A VISIT  TO  THE  PREFECT 

‘'After  breakfast  I started  on  foot  to  the  office  of  the 
prefect,  Shoo-Kungshow,  whom  I had  yesternight  prom- 
ised to  visit.  My  aged  friend  Woo-siensang  and  Dr.  Chang 
accompanied  me.  As  all  the  official  residences  in  the  city 
and  neighborhood  had  been  destroyed  during  the  war  with 
England,  his  worship  was  occupying  a temple  not  far  from 
the  west  gate,  ‘the  Wanchang  Koh,'  The  outer  court  of  the 
building  was  very  noisy  with  the  hum  of  attendants,  eager- 
ly rushing  forward  to  get  a glance  at  the  new  arrival.  In 
due  form  I was  ushered  into  the  audience-room,  by  having 
cards  sent  in,  etc.  The  room  was  quite  cheerless  and  cold, 
destitute  of  ornament,  and  possessing  only  a row  or  two 
of  cumbersome  chairs.  On  his  worship  entering,  he  seemed 
greatly  pleased  to  see  me,  and,  what  satisfied  me  more,  he 
treated  my  teacher  with  marked  respect;  for  before  the 
treaty  at  Nanking,  a native  teacher  would  probably  have 
been  seized  and  imprisoned  for  being  seen  in  company  with 
a foreigner.  The  ta-laouyay  (the  style  of  addressing  him, 
equivalent  to  ‘your  worship’)  was  a short  thick-set  man, — 
head  large, — face  round  and  honest-looking, — features 
deep, — countenance  intelligent  and  agreeable, — eyes  large, 
black,  quick,  and  expressive, — beard  jet,  long  and  pointed, 
and  his  upper  lip  overhung  with  tremendous  mustaches. 
He  wore  an  official  cap,  which  had  a fine  plume  of  peacock- 
feathers  behind,  and  was  topped  with  a transparent  crystal 
ball  denoting  the  fifth  rank  of  nobility.  His  dress  was  not 
gaudy,  though  of  rich  dark-colored  satin ; around  the  neck 
there  was  slung  a string  of  large,  elegant  beads,  that  fell 
over  a square  breastpiece  of  beautiful  embroidery — a du- 
plicate of  which  was  sewed  upon  his  tunic,  the  one  in  front, 
and  the  other  behind.  On  this  breastpiece  he  had  the  badge 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


141 


of  his  order  embroidered  the  pikhein^  ^silver  pheasant/  His 
voice  was  musical ; and,  when  he  spoke,  it  was  with  an  air 
of  authority.  At  first  his  utterance  was  to  me  indistinct — 
partly  from  not  being  accustomed  to  the  accent  of  Kiang-si 
his  native  province.  He  was  only  fifty-three  years  of  age — 
an  inquiry  on  which  point  (according  to  Chinese  etiquette) 
was  almost  the  first  question  that  passed  between  us. 

^Tn  his  deportment,  he  was  dignified  but  not  supercilious ; 
bland  and  affable,  but  by  no  means  familiar ; and  even  now 
the  favorable  impression  on  my  mind  is  as  fresh  as  on  the 
day  it  was  made.  Shoo-Kungshow  was  an  officer  often 
spoken  of  among  the  English  during  the  war,  and  doubtless 
is  still  remembered  by  some  as  'the  fine  old  fellow.' 

"Two  topics  in  particular  engrossed  our  conversation  at 
this  interview.  One  was  geography.  He  showed  me  a 
Chinese  manual  of  geography  in  his  library,  which  was  ex- 
ceedingly imperfect  and  erroneous.  Accommodated  en- 
tirely to  the  narrow  and  exclusive  views  of  the  Chinese,  it 
contained  a most  defective  outline  of  the  divisions  of  the 
world.  The  other  subject  was  suggested  by  hi’s  being  in- 
formed that  I was  neither  a merchant,  nor  a soldier,  nor  a 
civilian.  'What  then?'  'A  minister  of  Jesus  Christ's  relig- 
ion.' On  finding  that  I was  not  a Catholic,  he  expressed 
surprise  that,  in  Western  lands,  we  should  have  two  dif- 
ferent religions  professing  the  name  of  Jesus.  He  asked 
what  was  the  real  point  of  difference — at  the  same  time 
conjecturing  it  might  consist  in  the  one  system  inculcating 
the  worship  of  the  cross  as  he  had  witnessed  among  the 
Catholics  in  China,  and  the  other  declining  to  pay  such 
homage. 

"On  leaving  the  prefect,  his  worship  expressed  grati- 
fication in  at  last  meeting  with  one  who  was  not  a soldier ; 
for  he  had  seen  too  many  of  that  rank  during  the  last  two 
or  three  years. 


142 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


A "CHINESE  TRAITOR  ” 

“Koo,  an  officer  inferior  to  the  prefect,  though  one  of 
his  official  confidants,  then  led  me  into  his  worship’s  sum- 
mer-house, where  I was  entertained  with  great  urbanity, 
as  well  as  with  a profusion  of  tea,  wine,  cakes,  fruits, 
etc.  While  sitting  there,  a man  rushed  in  and  dropped 
on  his  knees  before  Koo-laouyay.  He  was  a Han-Kan  or 
‘Chinese  traitor,’  that  had  been  proscribed  during  the 
late  war,  for  aiding  and  abetting  the  British.  By  the  treaty 
of  Nanking,  the  imperial  reprieve  had  been  obtained  for 
all  this  class,  and  passes  had  been  sent  to  each.  Mr.  Koo 
immediately  requested  him  to  rise  from  his  kneeling  pos- 
ture, and  handed  him  to  a seat,  when  he  joined  us  in  tea 
and  talk.  This  officer,  Koo,  called  on  me  next  day;  and, 
in  his  manner  and  inquiry,  evinced  no  little  candour  and 
curiosity.  He  was  particularly  searching  in  his  questions 
about  England  and  other  Western  countries. 

A RICH  man’s  home 

"Having  gone  the  round  of  etiquettish  visits,  the  rest 
of  the  day  was  spent  in  looking  round  the  city,  my  friend 
the  doctor  volunteering  to  act  as  guide.  This  was  some- 
what to  my  advantage,  for  the  aged  man  did  what  he  could, 
by  suasion,  to  keep  at  a distance  the  crowds  that  collected 
round  to  see  a single  stranger  from  a far  country  trading 
through  the  heart  of  their  city. 

“In  the  course  of  my  wanderings  I called  at  the  resi- 
dence of  Mr.  Lin,  a gentleman  of  extensive  reputation  and 
large  property.  He  chanced  not  to  be  at  home,  yet  I 
was  invited  to  look  through  his  flower-garden,  so  highly 
spoken  of  by  the  citizens.  The  taste  displayed  in  laying 
out  these  narrow  grounds  was  certainly  wonderful,  as  well 


143 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 

as  the  skill  in  grouping  together  in  becoming  proportions 
a complete  epitome  of  rural  scenery.  Here  there  was  a 
lake  with  its  islets,  there  mountains,  hills,  and  dales, 
orchards  and  jungles,  barren  rocks  and  green  swards,  peb- 
bly  paths  and  chunam  walks,  all  compressed  within  less 
than  half  an  acre  of  land.  Everywhere  the  eye  fell  on  ele- 
gant slate  slabs,  squares  of  marble,  needles  of  petrified 
wood,  stunted  firs,  forced  peach-trees,  Japanese  dwarf  ce- 
dars, and  bamboos,  green,  black,  speckled  square-stalked 
and  round-stalked,  etc. 

The  rich,  when  they  can  afford  it  (and  if  they  have  a 
taste  for  it),  have  their  grounds  laid  out  much  in  the  style 
I have  described,  not  improbably  for  the  sake  of  affording 
the  females  and  children  in  their  establishments  means  for 
recreation.  Such  attempts  to  bring  within  a narrow  space 
an  epitome  of  rural  nature  have  been  highly  successful,  and 
present  an  agreeable  miniature  of  the  picturesque  scenery 
in  country  life  to  those  that  are  confined  within  closed 
doors.  In  the  midst  of  these  tasteful  arrangements,  it  is 
not  unusual  to  erect  a summer-house  for  study  or  amuse- 
ment. A small  lagoon  will  invariably  be  found  in  such 
charming  resorts,  where  goldfish  and  other  varieties  are 
reared,  and  the  water  lily  in  particular,  a favorite  with  the 
Chinese  for  its  wide  open  leaf  and  its  fragrant  flower. 

“Leaving  the  elegant  mansion  of  Mr.  Lin,  I called  on 
another  gentleman  of  property,  Mr.  Tang,  famous  among 
his  townsmen  for  his  pencilings  of  the  chrysanthemum. 
His  manner  was  dignified  and  kind.  The  ladies  of  his  fam- 
ily seemed  curious  to  have  a look  at  the  stranger.  It  would 
of  course  have  been  out  of  place  to  introduce  me  to  their 
gaze;  yet,  ever  ingenious  in  devices  to  gratify  inquisitive- 
ness, they  contrived  to  prick  the  paper  windows  and  peep 
through.  Mr.  Tang  observed  this,  but  made  no  objection 
to  it. 


144 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


TEA-HOUSES 

^Wearied  with  my  walks,  I hastened  back  to  my  lodg- 
ings ; but  at  evening  I wandered  abroad  to  have  a look  at 
the  'tea-houses’  of  Ningpo,  generally  frequented  after  sun- 
set. Being  at  a distance  from  the  heart  of  the  city,  where 
'tea-houses’  and  'eating-houses’  abound,  some  of  them  very 
respectable,  I found  myself  in  one  of  a low  order,  with 
furniture  wretched,  tea  poor,  and  company  low.  This  is 
not  to  be  taken  as  descriptive  of  the  general  character  of 
these  convenient  establishments ; — by  no  means.  And  al- 
though those  of  the  lowest  rank  may  bear  an  affinity  to  the 
grog-shop  in  England,  there  is  the  marked  difference  in 
the  beverage,  I have  without  doubt  seen  strong  drinks  too 
freely  used  in  some  of  these  nominal  'tea-houses ;’  yet  the 
common  draught  is  that  which  'cheers  but  does  not  ine- 
briate.’ Very  large  shops  appropriated  to  tea-drinking  are 
to  be  met  with  everywhere  in  Chinese  towns,  occupying 
extensive  flights.  On  the  floors  of  these  rooms  there  stand 
square  wooden  tables,  with  benches  and  chairs  sufficient  to 
accommodate  four  to  six  people;  and  at  the  further  end, 
there  is  the  kitchen  with  ovens  and  stoves  duly  arranged, 
and  bearing  huge  kettles,  massive  teapots,  monster  caldrons 
as  large  as  yourself,  all  filled  with  hot  water.  Usually  there 
is  a goodly  staff  of  waiters  moving  about,  vigilant  in  their 
attentions,  carrying  small  trays,  with  teacups  of  the  warm 
decoction  and  plates  of  cakes  and  dried  fruit,  etc.  Less  than 
a farthing  will  obtain  a refreshing  cup  of  comfort.  At 
every  hour,  morn  and  evening  especially,  the  rooms  are 
crowded.  There  is  no  prohibition  of  tobacco-smoking  or 
gambling,  but  the  reverse.  Nor  is  there  any  restraint  on 
loud  and  noisy  conversation.  Laborers  and  passengers  are 
constantly  dropping  in  for  such  appropriate  conveniences, 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


145 


as  are  offered  in  the  shape  of  basins  of  warm  water  and 
rough  (rather  coarse)  towels,  for  washing  hands  and  face. 
Often  music  is  conducted  within,  and,  much  like  resorts  of 
the  same  class  in  Europe,  the  tea-drinking  houses  in  China 
form  the  evening  refuges  of  the  working  classes  for  news 
and  gossip,  amusement  or  recreation.  Accordingly,  at  that 
hour,  you  may  see  whole  tables  occupied  by  dice-playing 
and  other  games.  Frequently,  on  winter  nights,  they  are 
converted  into  rooms,  where  a man,  popular  for  his  powers 
of  mimic  and  comic,  is  invited  for  a few  cents  to  hold 
forth,  and  will  rivet  an  audience  for  an  hour  or  two  by  his 
recitals  of  strange  legends  and  tales  from  ancient  history. 
Besides,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  disputants  to  refer  their 
quarrels  to  a ‘tea-shop  assembly and  I have  known  cases 
of  libelous  slander  taken  by  the  plaintiffs  to  a gathering 
in  a tea-drinking  establishment  for  adjudication. 

“ ‘Eating-houses’  sometimes  are  connected  with  tea- 
houses. In  these  a substantial  meal  can  be  had  at  a mo- 
ment’s notice.  Some  of  them  occupy  large  and  commo- 
dious buildings.  I have  been  in  several  that  were  two 
stories  high,  with  the  restaurants  above  and  kitchens  un- 
derneath. The  bill  of  fare  offered  everything  in  season,  at 
moderate  charges.  Those  of  the  better  class  that  I visited 
were  well  fitted  up,  and  in  most  points  corresponded  to  es- 
tablishments of  the  same  name  amongst  ourselves. 

“One  word  or  two  about  tea  and  the  mode  of  making  it. 
They  have  varieties  of  tea;  but  an  officer  I once  visited 
produced  a valuable  packet  of  ^strengthening  tea,’  prepared 
in  Yun-nan  province,  and  of  great  repute  as  a medical 
preparation.  It  looked  much  like  common  black  tea,  made 
up  into  round  balls  with  paste  or  gum.  But  the  taste  of 
the  infusion  was  exceedingly  bitter.  After  descanting  at 
some  length  in  a rhapsodical  strain,  on  the  virtue  of  the 
beverage,  he  abruptly  proceeded  to  assure  me  that  there 


146 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


was  another  species  superior  still,  indeed  unequaled  by  any 
other  tea  for  flavor,  fineness,  and  scarcity;  namely,  the 
'monkey  tea.'  This,  he  added,  could  be  obtained  only  in 
small  quantities,  and  in  select  spots.  Growing  on  heights 
inaccessible  to  the  foot  of  man,  and  approachable  only  by  the 
. sagacious  brute  whose  name  it  bears,  he  said  it  was  col- 
lected by  certain  of  the  monkey  species  trained  first  to 
climb  up  the  most  lofty  precipices,  and,  after  filling  their 
pouches  with  the  delicious  herb,  to  descend  again  to  empty 
their  contents  into  their  masters’  baskets ! The  delicacy  of 
!the  tea  he  pronounced  to  be  beyond  exception,  and  its 
value  very  high.  Having  himself  tasted  its  sweets,  he  de- 
plored that  he  had  it  not  in  his  power  to  treat  me  with  a 
cup  of  the  prime  draught.  On  referring  to  Le  Breton’s  ‘La 
Chine  en  Miniature,’  I find  the  following  notice  of  the  same 
en  Miniature,’  I find  the  following  notice  of  the  same 
article : ‘Dry  and  elevated  situations  are  much  more  suit- 
able for  the  cultivation  of  tea  than  low  and  damp  ones ; 
the  consequence  is,  that  the  in-gathering  is  often  very 
difficult,  especially  that  of  the  best  kind  of  tea.  Men  could 
not,  without  the  greatest  difficulty,  hold  on  at  the  sides  of 
the  peaks ; one  false  step  might  be  the  cause  of  severe 
wounds,  or  at  least  injure  or  tear  up  the  young  trees. 
Sometimes  the  sides  are  so  sharp  and  pointed  that  it  would 
not  be  possible  for  men  to  climb  up.  To  overcome  this 
difficulty,  a singular  expedient  has  been  resorted  to.  Mon- 
keys are  dressed  so  as  to  be  able  to  climb,  and  to  gather 
the  leaves  off  the  tea-branches.  One  can  easily  conceive 
how  difficult  it  is  to  have  to  make  use  of  such  helps,  for 
the  monkeys  can  only  be  guided  on  such  occasions  by  an 
instinct  purely  mechanical.  When  they  have  descended 
the  mountain  that  they  have  climbed  with  the  help  of  cords, 
they  receive  for  a reward  some  dainty  for  their  taste.’ 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


147 


‘^The  common  mode  of  ^making  tea/  among  the  ^tea- 
drinkingest  people  on  the  face  of  the  earth/  is  simply  to 
put  into  a cup  as  much  tea  as  you  can  pinch  up  with  your 
fingers,  pour  upon  it  water  at  the  boiling  point,  and  cover 
the  cup.  The  beverage  is  then  sipped  at  pleasure,  and  a 
second  edition  obtained  by  repeating  the  application  of 
boiling  water. 

'Tn  families  and  shops,  where  visitors  are  constantly 
pouring  in,  a commodious  teapot  full  of  the  decoction  stands 
on  a counter  or  a convenient  side-table,  surrounded  by  a 
bevy  of  teacups,  to  oblige  the  thirsty  customer.  Rain-water 
is  the  universal  favorite  for  preparing  the  draught ; hence, 
in  economical  families,  huge  monster  jars  are  constantly 
standing  under  the  eaves  of  the  houses,  to  catch  every  drop 
of  the  'heavenly  rain/  Strong  tea  is  not  preferred  by 
the  Chinese,  black  tea  being  the  rule,  green  the  exception. 
When  decocted,  it  is  drunk  without  any  admixture  of  milk 
and  sugar.  These  are  used  only  by  foreigners,  and  prob- 
ably to  mollify  the  desagremens  of  the  'black  draughts’  they 
are  so  fond  of  'masking.’  As  to  sugar  and  milk,  the  for- 
mer is  superabundant  in  China,  and  used  for  every  imagin- 
able purpose  except  tea-drinking,  but  you  will  live  long 
enough  in  the  'flowery  land’  before  your  ears  are  startled 
by  the  milk-whoop,  which  in  England  is  the  morning  salute 
to  wake  up  the  kitchen  and  nursery  maids.  I am  now 
speaking  of  the  Chinese,  not  of  the  habits  of  foreign  vis- 
itors, who  in  this  respect  show  that  they  will  not  always  do 
in  Rome  as  Rome  does ; for  they  will  have  milk  even  in 
milkless  China,  and  at  length  those  tremendous  water-buf- 
faloes (which  one  at  first  sight  scarcely  knows  what  to  call, 
— hippopotamuses  or  rhinoceroses)  have  been  trained  and 
are  drained  to  supply  foreign  tables  at  the  several  settle- 
ments, with  thick  milk  for  tea  and  coffee. 


.48 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


WOMAN^S  MILK 

“The  first  time  I caught  sight  of  milk  in  a Chinese  street, 
it  was  in  the  hands  of  a female  carrying  a cup  of  what  I 
thought  to  be  the  genuine  unchalked  article.  ‘Excuse  me, 
but  what  is  that?'  said  I.  Tt  is  milk,'  she  replied.  ‘What 
milk?  cow's  or  goat's?'  ‘Woman's  milk,  sir.’  ‘Woman's 
milk!  for  what  use?'  ‘It  has  been  bought  for  an  aged 
neighbor.'  ‘And  what's  the  price  of  that  cupful?’  ‘About 
eighty  cash.'  Subsequently  I discovered  that  it  is  not  un- 
usual for  nursing  women  to  sell  their  own  milk,  for  moth- 
erless babes  or  octogenarians  in  second  babyhood,  the 
nurses  drawing  their  own  milk  to  vend  it  at  2d.  or  3d.  a 
cup. 

MILITARY  PARADES 

“After  my  first  day  at  Ningpo  had  passed  off  in  rambles 
among  official  residences,  flower  gardens,  and  tea-houses, 
the  second  was  occupied  with  another  series  of  excursions, 
all  diverse  and  instructive.  Only  two  minutes'  walk  from 
my  habitat,  there  was  a parade-ground  for  military  exer- 
cises. Ascertaining  that  the  horse-archers  were  out,  I has- 
tened to  the  spot  immediately  after  breakfast.  The  ground 
occupied  was  perhaps  200  yards  long  by  50  broad.  The 
officers  present  were  of  an  inferior  grade,  ensigns  and  ser- 
geants, except  the  military  judge  that  was  seated  under  a 
canvas  canopy.  The  archers  were  drawn  up  two  deep, 
and  called  out  in  companies  of  eight  men,  to  receive  orders 
on  their  knees.  They  then  went  onward  to  the  spot  marked 
off,  one  after  the  other  mounting  his  steed,  setting  it  at 
full  gallop,  and  firing  his  arrows.  As  each  man  shot  off  his 
handful,  he  returned,  and  kneeling  before  the  superior,  re- 
ceived his  reprimand,  or  instructions,  or  approval.  The 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


149 


bull’s-eye,  about  sixty  yards  off  from  the  canopy,  was  rep- 
resented by  three  red  balls,  painted  one  above  the  other 
upon  a square  sedge-mat  nailed  to  a bamboo  frame.  The 
aim  was  to  hit  any  of  the  balls,  especially  the  centre  one, 
while  the  horse  was  racing  along  the  course.  Some  proved 
bad  shots,  others  good,  and  every  successful  hit  was  an- 
nounced by  drum-beating. 

‘^The  freedom  I had  in  watching  this  review,  formed  a 
marked  contrast  to  the  restraints  that  not  long  before 
were  laid  on  foreigners  at  Canton,  who  had  expressed  a 
wish  to  be  present  at  one  of  their  grand  military  exhibi- 
tions. As  that  proclamation  reads, — 'The  local  authorities 
think,  very  properly,  that  it  is  their  duty  to  keep  a strict 
guard  against  their  foreign  visitors;  accordingly,  the  Che- 
heen  of  Nanhae  a few  days  ago  issued  a proclamation  for- 
bidding them  to  repair  to  the  parade-grounds  to  witness 
the  military  reviews  which  were  there  soon  to  take  place. 
Two  reasons  were  offered  for  this  prohibition:  first,  lest 
having  swords  with  them  they  should  suddenly  get  into  a 
rage  and  injure  the  bystanders ; and  in  the  second  place, 
lest  they  themselves  should  amid  the  crowds  be  trodden 
under  foot:  for  these  considerations,  the  Cheheen  orders 
the  hong  merchants  and  linguists  to  do  their  duty,  and 
prevent  the  foreigners  from  trespassing  their  proper  limits.’ 

"Ten  years  after,  I had  an  opportunity  at  Shanghai  of 
attending  a military  parade  of  infantry  and  artillery,  got 
up  in  preparation  of  the  descent  of  the  Kwang-si  rebels,  but 
the  continued  want  of  discipline  was  astonishing.  There 
were  five  companies  of  the  red,  blue,  white,  yellow,  and 
black  flags  respectively;  with  fifty  privates,  also  one  piece 
of  artillery  and  gunners,  in  each.  The  evolutions  and  rev- 
olutions were  destitute  of  rule  and  order.  Besides  artil- 
lery, there  were  ginjall  and  musket  bearers.  The  muskets 


150 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


were  of  horrid  material.  The  guns  (130  pounds  in  weight) 
were  dragged  by  six  men.  The  cleaning  rods  were  bam- 
boos pointed  with  stiff  hair ; the  ramrods  nothing  but  bare 
poles ; and  the  cannon-matches  cords  of  tow.  The  ginjalls 
were  heavy,  like  field-pieces,  and  had  to  be  borne  on  two 
men’s  shoulders.  The  soldiers  had  no  regimentals  to  dis- 
tinguish them,  except  perhaps  that  they  had  no  rags.  They 
wore  red  tasselled  caps,  each  with  a bit  of  cloth  hanging 
on  to  his  tassel,  and  colored  according  to  the  red,  blue,  etc., 
company  to  which  he  belonged.  The  officers  literally  were 
of  the  ‘Society  of  Odd  Fellows,’  all  tucking  up  their 
petticoats  and  robes,  flaunting  about,  cutting  military  ca- 
pers, shouting  out  the  word  of  command  in  a most  dis- 
cordant fashion,  and  breaking  up  to  refresh  themselves 
with  tea  and  tobacco. 

THE  CITY  WALLS 

“To  return  to  Ningpo:  When  the  ‘archer  parade’  was 
over,  accompanied  by  Woo-siensang,  I sallied  forth  to  the 
great  city  walls,  intending  to  make  their  circuit.  The  entire 
circumference  approached  five  miles;  the  average  height 
twenty-five  feet,  exclusive  of  a parapet  five  feet  high ; the 
width  of  the  wall  on  the  top  fifteen,  at  its  base  twenty-two 
feet,  and  the  material  solid, — the  lower  part  of  stone  and 
granite,  the  upper  brick.  Some  parts  were  greatly  dilap- 
idated ; and  occasionally  the  ramparts  so  overrun  with  grass 
and  weeds  that  I could  with  difficulty  thread  my  way.  In 
the  wall  there  are  six  gates,  each  of  them  double,  the  inner 
supported  by  an  outer  one  at  a distance  of  at  least  twenty 
yards.  The  line  of  wall  that  runs  off  from  the  one  side  of 
the  inner  gate  toward  the  outer,  is  the  leading  wall.  This, 
describing  a section  of  a parallelogram,  meets  the  inner 
gate  round  at  the  other  side.  At  the  point  of  the  inner  gate 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


151 


where  the  two  parts  of  the  leading  wall  approach  each 
other,  an  arch  is  thrown  across  to  join  them,  called  the 
‘moon-wall/  Over  each  gateway — inner  or  outer — a 
guard-house  stood,  that  on  the  former  being  the  larger, 
and  two  stories  high.  During  my  residence  of  seven 
months  in  Ningpo,  these  stations  were  unoccupied  by 
guards,  even  at  night.  The  city  gates  were  generally  closed 
a little  after  sunset, — though  opened  to  any  one  who  would 
pass  a bribe  of  a few  cash  into  the  porter’s  fist.  I did  not 
find  here,  as  I subsequently  found  in  other  Chinese  towns, 
that  many  dwelling  houses  were  built  on  the  walls,  or  even 
contiguous  to  them.  On  this  account  there  was  a clear 
walk  along  the  base  of  the  wall  within  the  city,  eight  and 
ten  feet  in  width. 

^'Casting  my  eye  over  the  interior  of  the  several  guard 
houses  as  I passed  along  the  walls,  it  was  impossible  not 
to  scan  the  traces  of  Englishmen  that  had  been  there.  Our 
British  soldiery,  many  months  stationed  there  during  the 
war  with  China,  had  beguiled  their  tedious  moments  by 
scribbling  lines  with  lumps  of  charcoal,  or  scratching  un- 
gainly figures  with  their  bayonets.  Nor  is  this  a trick  con- 
fined to  Europeans.  Side  by  side  with  their  delineations,  I 
deciphered  the  figurings  of  Chinese,  too,  who  seemed  equal- 
ly off-hand  in  writing  names  on  walls,  or  cutting  them  out 
upon  wood. 

^"“POST  NO  BILLS 

^^Nor  was  I less  surprised  here,  as  in  other  cities  in 
China,  to  witness  on  the  gateways  numerous  placards  of 
different  sizes  and  attractive  shapes, — pasted  up  to  apprize 
the  ‘gentry  and  citizens,’  or  ‘ladies  and  gentlemen,’  or  ‘relig- 
ious services,’  ‘theatrical  shows,’  ‘magisterial  orders,  ‘med- 
ical feats,’  etc.  The  rage  for  advertisement  in  China  is  quite 


152 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


as  prolific  as  elsewhere;  and  among  other  curiosities  in  this 
class  of  production,  I have  seen  fiery  squibs  on  public  char- 
acters, sober  admonitions  on  sundry  subjects,  and  quack 
puffs  in  every  line  of  business.  As  in  Europe,  so  in  China, 
objection  is  taken  to  the  placarding  of  bills  upon  private 
premises ; and  you  meet  with  notices  to  the  effect,  that  ^Bills 
pasted  up  will  be  daubed  over,’ — ‘Placards  will  be  torn 
down’ — ‘You  are  not  allowed  to  placard,’  and  sometimes 
the  polite  request,  ‘Pray  do  not  paste  your  bills  here.’ 

“the  drum-loft’^ 

“During  these  perambulations,  on  spying  a large  lofty 
building  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  I made  for  it.  It  was  ‘the 
Drum-loft,’  an  arch  of  wide  span,  surmounted  by  a guard- 
house. Standing  as  it  does  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  where 
the  principal  streets  meet,  the  scene  around  was  bustling 
and  lively.  According  to  the  local  records,  this  loft  ex- 
isted prior  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  has  undergone  a 
variety  of  changes.  The  object  of  the  monument  is  denoted 
by  its  singular  appellations,  ‘the  observatory,’  ‘the  sea- 
sun  radiance  loft,’  and  ‘the  clear  distance ;’  showing  that 
the  building  was  originally  built  for  a guard-house,  or  a 
prominent  part  from  which  the  surrounding  country  could 
be  watched,  in  protecting  the  interests  of  the  city  and  in- 
habitants. The  popular  name  ‘Drum-loft’  is  given  to  it 
from  a huge  drum  kept  there,  to  be  used  by  the  city  watch- 
men in  their  ordinary  night  beats,  especially  in  cases  of 
emergency  from  foe  or  fire. 

“From  the  ‘Drum-loft’  I hastened  back  to  the  walls, 
where,  as  before,  I met  with  few  people, — these  only  such 
as  had  run  up  from  the  streets  below,  with  a vacant  curios- 
ity gazing  at  a plain  Englishman.  More  frequently  I came 
upon  lean  horses,  here  and  there  grazing  in  solitude  on 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


153 


the  ramparts.  Outside  the  walls,  there  is  a moat  of  some 
extent  that  well  nigh  encircles  the  city.  The  northern  and 
eastern  faces  of  the  city,  supposed  to  be  well  enough 
guarded  by  the  river,  have  no  moat.  But  commencing  at 
the  north  gate,  it  runs  along  the  foot  of  the  wall,  west, 
south,  and  south  and  south-east,  until  it  stops  at  what  is 
called  The  Bridge-gate.’  This  gives  it  a length  of  about 
three  miles.  It  is  deep,  in  some  places  perhaps  forty  yards 
wide,  well  supplied  with  water  from  the  neighboring  fields 
and  river,  and  daily  navigated  by  small  boats. 

The  Bridge-gate,’  one  of  the  two  eastern  gates  in 
Ningpo,  is  called  so  from  a floating  bridge  thrown  across 
the  river  right  opposite.  The  bridge  measures  200  yards 
in  length  and  nearly  six  broad.  It  consists  of  planks  firmly 
lashed  and  laid  upon  lighters,  of  which  I counted  sixteen 
closely  linked  by  iron  chains.  Occasionally  it  was  opened 
at  a certain  part  for  the  passage  of  boats  plying  up  and 
down.  There  was  a busy  market  upon  it,  and  the  pas- 
sengers were  so  thickly  jostled,  that  no  man  had  time  to 
gaze  about  him.  It  led  into  a bustling  and  populous  suburb 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 

SCENERY  ABOUT  NINGPO 

^^On  this  first  visit  to  the  walls  of  Ningpo,  the  scenery 
around  was,  I must  say,  agreeable;  nor  was  it  less  so  in 
my  subsequent  strolls  here.  The  vast  plain  around  the 
city  was  a magnificent  amphitheatre,  stretching  away 
twelve,  fifteen,  and  eighteen  miles  on  the  one  side,  to  the 
foot  of  the  distant  hills,  and  on  the  other  to  the  verge  of 
the  ocean.  Many  a pleasing  and  curious  object  arrested 
the  eye.  Turn  it  from  the  northwest,  round  by  the  south 
and  southeast,  there  lay  before  me  canals  and  water  courses, 
cultivated  fields,  snug  farm-houses,  smiling  cottages,  fam- 


154 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ily  residences,  hamlets  and  villages,  family  tombs,  monas- 
teries, and  temples.  Toward  the  east  the  vision  was  bound- 
ed by  rising  mountains ; but  between  them  and  me  the  land 
scenery  was  much  the  same  as  already  described,  only  that 
I could  see  more  distinctly  the  river  swarming  with  boats, 
and  its  banks  studded  with  ice-houses.  Nor  was  my  curi- 
osity less  amused  or  gratified  as  I turned  the  eye  from 
without  to  look  within  the  city.  There,  there  were  single 
and  double-storied  houses,  low  and  irregular ; heavy  prison- 
like mansions,  family  vaults,  temples  with  their  glittering 
roofs,  official  residences,  examination  halls,  and  the  som- 
bre pagoda  of  Ningpo,  to  all  which  I must  defer  my  visits 
to  another  day;  for,  worn  out  with  this  weary  tramp  on 
the  city  walls,  I had  to  return  to  my  host’s  dwelling  for 
refreshment. 

'T  have  been  particular  in  giving  my  jottings  on  the 
walls  of  this  city,  that  I might  acquaint  the  reader  with 
what  may  be  regarded  a good  sample  of  a walled  town  in 
China;  for  almost  every  town,  even  of  ^the  third,’  or  low- 
est class,  is,  or  has  been  at  one  time,  walled.  Yet  it  is  not 
pretended  that  my  rough  description  of  Ningpo,  though  it 
be  a city  of  considerable  importance,  can  approach  the 
reality  in  such  large  capitals  as  Nanking,  Nanchang,  or 
Pekin. 

A VISIT  FROM  THE  PREFECT 

‘^On  reaching  my  lodgings,  I found  awaiting  me  a mark 
of  respect  unexpected  though  agreeable.  Shoo  ta  laouyay, 
the  prefect,  had  called  to  see  me.  It  is  a rule  among  offi- 
cials to  return  calls,  in  person  or  by  proxy,  the  second  day 
after  the  visit.  I looked  for  nothing  beyond  the  proxy. 
But  while  I felt  honored  by  his  worship’s  personal  atten- 
tions, I was  specially  pleased  at  it  as  an  additional  sign  of 
the  breaking  up  of  official  exclusiveness  and  vanity.  The 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


155 


prefect  came  with  his  usual  retinue  of  criers,  lictors,  chain- 
bearers,  and  other  attendants. 

‘'Chinese  magistrates  rarely,  if  ever,  go  out,  on  duty 
at  least,  without  a crowd  of  attaches  of  various  orders. 
First  you  have  ‘ragged  rascals,’  with  ornamental  flags 
and  poles,  large  lanterns,  and  red  boards  having  the  rank 
of  the  officer  painted  on  them,  running  and  shouting  to  the 
street  passengers — ‘Retire,  retire!  keep  silence,  and  clear 
the  way!’  Gong-strikers  follow,  denoting  at  certain  inter- 
vals by  so  many  strokes,  their  master’s  grade  and  office. 
Next  come  chain-bearers,  rattan-bearers,  whip-bearers, — 
significant  of  his  judicial  power.  Alongside  of  the  magis- 
terial chair  there  are  servants  trotting  on  foot,  with  um- 
brellas, pipes,  and  card-cases.  The  rear  is  brought  up  by 
one,  two,  or  three  seedy  bamboo  chairs,  occupied  by  sec- 
retaries, scribes,  and  hangers-on.  The  number  of  chair- 
bearers  depends  on  the  rank  of  the  officer.  Most  of  the 
attendants  wear  red-tasselled  caps.  During  the  war  v/ith 
China,  the  English  entertained  the  notion  that  every  China- 
man that  flourished  a red  tuft  on  his  bonnet  must  be  a sol- 
dier, or  one  connected  with  native  officials.  So  firmly  did 
this  idea  seat  itself  in  the  minds  of  some  of  the  British 
leaders  of  that  expedition,  that  not  a single  individual  on 
the  island  of  Chusan  was  permitted  to  wear  a tasselled  cap ; 
and  whoever  might  be  seen  with  it  in  his  hand,  or  in  his 
house,  was  at  once  suspected  and  seized.  If  the  hovel  of 
a native  happened  to  be  searched,  and  a red-tasseled  cap — 
never  so  torn,  dirty,  or  musty — was  found  in  a closet  or  a 
corner,  it  was  concluded  indisputable  that  the  poor  inmiate 
was  a soldier,  a kidnapper,  or  a disturber  of  the  public 
peace.  Indeed,  for  some  time  after  the  close  of  the  war, 
while  Chusan  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  British,  not  a 
man  of  peace  was  allowed  to  sport  such  caps,  not  even  the 
messengers  from  Ningpo  sent  by  native  officers  with  mes- 


156 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


sages  to  the  foreign  authorities  at  Tinghai.  Such  a course 
was  followed  in  consequence  of  an  erroneous  impression. 
This  kind  of  cap  is  worn  not  by  the  soldiery  only,  but  by 
gentlemen’s  servants,  the  messengers  of  officers, — even  the 
lowest  menial  when  he  pays  a visit  of  ceremony  or  celebrates 
a festive  season.  The  cap  is  of  cloth  in  winter, — of  straw 
in  summer, — with  a tuft  of  red  silk  on  the  crown.  As  fes- 
tivities are  by  no  means  unfrequent  during  the  year,  a cap 
of  this  sort  is  an  appendage  necessary  to  the  wardrobe  of 
every  police-runner,  or  chair-bearer,  who  ranks  in  the  low- 
est of  the  plebeian  classes. 

A MOHAMMEDAN  TEMPLE 

‘^On  the  first  Sunday  after  reaching  Ningpo,  I had  an 
interesting  visit  early  in  the  morning  from  one  of  the  two 
Mohammedan  priests  connected  with  the  mosque  in  the 
city.  It  was  quite  a treat  to  hear  a Chinaman  converse 
about  the  One  living  and  true  God,  the  commandments 
of  Jehovah,  and  some  of  the  patriarchs  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. He  spoke  decidedly  on  the  irrationality  and  wicked- 
ness of  worshiping  a plurality  of  gods,  adducing  the  ex- 
press command  of  Jehovah  that  he  himself  alone  should  be 
the  object  of  adoration.  Of  Jesus  Christ  this  individual  ap- 
peared to  know  little  beyond  the  name.  » 

‘^My  interview  with  this  junior  priest  encouraged  me 
much  on  a subsequent  occasion  to  visit  the  mosque  itself. 
Over  its  entrance  were  engraven  the  characters  ^Hwiiy 
Hwuy  Tang/  ^The  Mohammedan  Temple.’  In  the  first 
visit,  I was  fortunate  to  meet  the  senior  priest,  a native  of 
Shantung,  though  of  Arab  descent,  his  ancestors  having 
come  from  Medina,  He  himself  was  able  to  read  the  Koran, 
and  talk  Arabic  with  a degree  of  fluency ; but  of  Chinese 
reading  and  writing  he  was  as  ignorant  as  an  Englishman 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


157 


in  England,  although  he  had  been  born  in  China,  could 
talk  Chinese,  and  was  a minister  of  religion  among  the 
Chinese.  He  lamented  much  that  there  were  so  few  ad- 
herents to  his  creed  at  Ningpo,  where  they  did  not  number 
more  than  twenty  or  thirty  families,  one  or  two  of  them 
of  official  rank.  From  this  interesting  man  I learned  that 
the  stronghold  of  Mohammedanism  lies  in  Hangchow,  the 
capital  of  Chihkiang  province,  in  which  there  are  several 
mosques.  His  reigning  desire  was  to  make  a pilgrimage 
to  Mecca ; and  with  this  view  he  put  the  minutest  inquiries 
as  to  the  distance  of  that  city,  and  the  length  of  voy- 
age, etc. 

‘‘He  took  me  into  the  place  of  worship,  adjoining  his 
private  residence.  On  ascending  a flight  of  steps,  I was 
brought  under  a plain  roof.  Beneath  this  I observed  scat- 
tered up  and  down,  a quantity  of  old  furniture  and  agricul- 
tural implements,  covered  with  dust.  To  support  the  roof 
there  ■ were  pillars,  ornam^ented  with  sentences  from  the 
Koran.  As  soon  as  I entered,  my  attention  was  attracted 
by  a pair  of  small  doors  in  the  wall,  within  which  I was 
told  was  the  sacred  seat,  and  on  one  side  of  it  a little 
book-case,  with  the  Mohammedan  Scriptures  in  twenty- 
four  parts.  He  showed  me  his  canonicals, — simply  a white 
robe  and  a pointed  turban, — never  worn  but  at  religious 
services.  He  told  me  they  professed  to  hold  one  day  sacred 
in  seven ; but  if  the  followers  of  the  Prophet  had  any  urgent 
secular  business  on  that  day,  they  did  not  trouble  them- 
selves to  attend  service.  Happening  to  see  on  the  threshold 
a tablet,  called  Lungpai,  the  ‘Dragon  Tablet,’  similar  to 
that  found  in  any  Chinese  temple,  with  the  inscription  upon 
it — Hwangti,  wansui  wansui,  wanwansui,  equivalent  to  ‘The 
Emperor,  the  Everliving,’  etc., — I pointed  it  out  and  asked 
him  how,  if  he  regarded  the  spot  as  consecrated  to  the 
worship  of  Aloho, — the  name  he  gave  to  the  One  living 


58 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


and  true  God, — he  could  permit  such  a tablet  to  stand  there. 
He  protested  that  he  did  not,  and  never  would,  pay  religious 
homage  to  such  a tablet  or  to  any  human  sovereign.  In 
evidence  of  the  truth  of  his  asseverations,  he  pointed  to  the 
low  place  given  it  on  the  ground  floor,  so  far  removed  from 
the  sacred  seat.  Further,  he  explained,  that  it  was  placed 
within  the  precincts  of  the  mosque  only  for  expediency's 
sake,  for,  if  he  and  his  disciples  were  charged  by  the  ene- 
mies of  Mohammedanism  with  disloyalty,  they  had  only  to 
appeal  to  the  presence  of  the  tablet. 

A MANDARIN 

''On  the  fifth  day  of  my  residence  at  Ningpo,  I had  a 
message  from  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Chihkiang 
province — his  headquarters  being  then  at  Ningpo, — inquir- 
ing if  I could  supply  him  with  a glass  for  a damaged  tele- 
scope. It  was  entirely  out  of  my  power  to  meet  this  re- 
quest. I could  only  offer  to  send  it  to  Hongkong  to  be 
repaired.  But  this  did  not  suit  his  excellency.  When,  sub- 
sequently, I called  upon  the  commander-in-chief,  I found 
him  an  aged  man,  of  a tall  figure,  and  affected  with  paralysis 
of  the  right  eye.  His  speech  was  slovenly,  his  manner  in- 
dolent, though  his  notions  sounded  high  and  aristocratic. 
He  wore  a handsome  red  dress,  and  his  official  cap  had  a 
red  coral  button,  with  a slender  plume  of  peacock-feathers. 
The  attendants  immediately  about  his  chair  were  ensigns, 
sergeants,  and  corporals,  with  brass  and  opaque  buttons. 

"About  the  same  time  I took  the  opportunity  of  waiting 
on  several  other  mandarin  authorities  in  Ningpo, — of  which 
visits  I offer  the  following  summary.  There  was  one  of  the 
name  of  Luh,  who,  during  the  peace  negotiations  with  Great 
Britain,  had  fallen  under  the  Imperial  ban  and  lost  his 
honors  and  office.  Although  the  flush  of  health  was  diffused 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


159 


over  a fine  oval  countenance,  it  was  evident  he  was  much 
depressed  in  consequence  of  his  recent  degradation.  The 
reputation  in  which  he  stood  among  his  countrymen  as  a 
scholar  was  high.  He  was  spoken  of  by  the  Ningpo  citizen 
as  one  who  had  been  very  efficient  in  his  department,  and  his 
removal  from  office  was  much  regretted  by  the  people. 
Ever  since  his  return  from  Nanking,  whither  he  had  been 
summoned  in  the  summer  of  1842  by  the  Imperial  com- 
missioners to  assist  in  forming  the  treaty,  he  had  conducted 
himself  towards  the  English  with  uniform  courtesy,  as  I 
can  testify  from  personal  knowledge ; and  in  losing  him  they 
also  were  deprived  of  the  services  of  an  enlightened  Chinese 
friend. 

''While  I was  seated  in  Mr.  Luh's  audience-room,  Le- 
joolin,  the  successor  of  my  friend  Shoo-kungshow,  entered. 
Being  not  above  thirty-three  years  of  age,  he  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  fortunate  men  of  his  day,  to  enter  at  so 
early  an  age  upon  an  office  of  such  high  importance.  I 
was  informed  it  was  his  literary  attainments  that  had  ob- 
tained for  him  favor  at  court.  At  nineteen  he  took  the 
second  degree  of  literary  honors,  and  was  at  once  appointed 
to  the  mayoralty  in  a neighboring  city.  In  his  remarkable 
intelligence  and  unassuming  kindness,  there  was  reason  to 
hope  that  he  would  aid  in  promoting  a liberal  policy  to- 
wards foreigners. 

"But  my  visit  to  a neighbor  of  Messrs.  Luh  and  Le  was 
attended  by  impressions  the  reverse  of  all  made  in  my  in- 
terview with  those  gentlemen.  His  name  was  Lung,  then 
acting  the  part  of  mayor  in  Ningpo.  His  long,  lank  figure, 
— supercilious  look,  and  affected  condescension  to  speak 
with  a foreigner, — chilled  me,  and  awakened  a suspicion 
that  he  was  a man  capable  of  doing  dark  deeds.  Of  this  I 
had  a melancholy  proof  that  very  day  on  leaving  his  office. 
In  front  of  Lung’s  visitors’  room,  my  eye  caught  a group 


160 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


of  people  collected  in  the  middle  of  an  area.  As  I ap- 
proached the  spot,  I saw  an  unfortunate  culprit,  with  his 
knees  bared,  kneeling  on  a coil  of  iron  chains.  He  was  fixed 
in  that  horrid  posture  by  having  his  hands  tied  behind  his 
back  to  a stake  that  was  held  firmly  in  the  ground  by  two 
men.  If  he  swerved  to  the  right  or  the  left,  a man  on  either 
side,  armed  with  a whip,  forced  the  tortured  culprit  back  to 
his  perpendicular  position,  by  a lash  or  two  on  his  bare  head. 
The  agonies  of  the  poor  fellow  were  evident,  from  his  quiv- 
ering lips,  pallid  countenance,  and  tremulous  voice  implor- 
ing relief,  which  was  refused  with  the  cold  mocking  com- 
mand, ‘Confess  or  suffer.’  I left  the  spot  speechless. 

TAOU  TEMPLES 

“To  leave  this  ‘chamber  of  horrors — Situate  within  the 
north  gate  of  Ningpo,  there  were  under  one  roof  two  tem- 
ples of  the  Taou  sect,  called  the  Yushing  Kwan,  which  I 
repeatedly  visited.  Though  the  flight  of  buildings  was  ex- 
tensive, and  there  were  not  many  priests  about,  everything 
seemed  in  good  order,  probably  owing  to  its  having  been 
recently  tenanted  by  some  officers  of  state ; for  when  official 
residences  are  scarce  or  in  ruin,  temples,  monasteries,  and 
even  nunneries,  are  converted  into  officers’  apartments. 
The  authorities  of  Ningpo,  having  by  the  ravages  of  1841 
and  1842  been  thrown  out  of  house  and  home  (for  our 
British  troops,  although  they  spared  private,  did  not  spare 
official  residences),  were  for  a year  or  two  obliged  to  bury 
themselves  in  the  halls  and  cloisters  of  the  priesthood.  On 
my  first  visit,  I found  the  Yushing  temple  lay  close  under 
the  walls,  and  sheltered  at  the  back  by  a thick  grove  of 
trees.  The  avenue  from  the  outer  lodge  to  the  sanctum 
sanctorum  was  clean  and  cool, — overhung  by  the  branches 
of  lofty  trees  that  rose  up  on  each  side  of  the  walk  and  threw 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


161 


a sombre  quiet  over  the  whole  place.  The  chief  priest,  a 
man  of  short  stature  and  slender  make,  but  venerable  in 
appearance  and  genteel  in  manners,  politely  volunteered  to 
show  me  round  the  building.  I passed  from  one  corridor 
to  another,  but,  throughout  the  immense  building,  met  with 
only  half  a dozen  inmates  of  the  sacerdotal  order.  The 
spacious  chambers  and  halls  were  occupied  by  sculptured, 
carved,  or  merely  painted  images,  of  all  sizes,  shapes,  and 
ranks,  young  and  aged,  animal,  human,  devilish,  and  imag- 
ino-divine.  A few  of  the  inscriptions  were  awfully  misap- 
plied. At  the  entrance-gate,  for  instance,  this  line  ran  be- 
low and  ugly  three-eyed  monster,  The  three  eyes  that 
neither  good  nor  evil  can  evade.’ 

THE  BUDDHISTS 

^^A  little  way  on  from  this  I observed  another  large  gate- 
way, belonging  to  the  temple  of  Lew-tsoo.  Within  that 
entrance,  and  under  cover,  there  were  seated  four  huge 
figures,  ‘the  four  great  Kin-kang,’ — probably  standing 
there  to  the  present  day.  One  carries  a lyre,  ‘at  the  notes 
of  which,’  they  say,  ‘the  ears  of  the  whole  world  are  awak- 
ened.’ Another,  with  a black  and  ferocious  face,  flourished 
a drawn  sword.  A third  sported  a big  umbrella,  and  is  said 
by  the  simple  elevation  of  this  instrument,  to  have  power 
to  draw  down  to  earth  storms  of  thunder  and  rain.  The 
fourth  twists  a long  snake  round  his  arm,  to  denote  skill  to 
tame  wildness  into  submission.  They  were  arranged  two 
on  each  side  of  the  passage.  In  the  center  gateway,  an 
image  faced  you  exactly  as  you  entered,  very  stout  and  with 
the  breast  and  upper  abdomen  exposed,  seated  on  a large 
cloth  bag,  laughing  and  looking  right  jolly,  with  the  two 
words  inscribed  overhead,  Chih  siaou,  ‘the  ever-laughing 
one.’  This  is  a representation  of  ’the  Buddha  that  is  to 


162 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


come/  Behind  him  there  was  an  erect  idol,  called  ^the  Wei- 
to  image, ^ or  'the  Hoofah  wei-to,'  as  he  is  said  to  be  'the 
protector  of  the  Buddhist  faith/  He  was  clad  in  armor, 
and  seemed  ready  for  the  offensive  or  the  defensive.  With- 
in there  was  a crowd  of  other  images,  chiefly  canonized 
heroes  and  disciples  of  this  popular  superstition. 

"Passing  from  that  point,  I made  for  a Buddhist  mon- 
astery close  by, — the  Yenchingsze.  There  I found  fifty 
priests.  Adjoining  it  there  was  another,  called  Kwantang, 
still  larger  than  any  I had  seen,  and  more  ornamented.  The 
images  of  Buddh  here  were  the  most  gigantic  I have  ever 
set  eyes  on  in  China — ^the  three  principle  representations 
of  Buddh — the  Shihkia,  the  Wanshoo,  and  the  Poohien.  Just 
behind  that  triad,  there  stood  the  'Thousand-handed  Kwan- 
yin,’  the  Shiva  of  the  Hindoos.  On  each  side  of  these  dii 
majoreSy  there  was  a row  of  nine  figures  to  represent  some 
celebrated  hermits  and  deified  genii,  called  'the  Lohan,’  all 
in  various  postures  and  with  different  features.  The  priests 
spoke  with  regret  at  having  lost  an  enormous  metal  bell  that 
belonged  to  their  temple,  and  which  was  carried  off  by  the 
British  when  Ningpo  fell  into  their  hands.  That  bell  of 
Ningpo’  now  figures  in  the  British  Museum. 

"When  I visited  this  temple,  there  were  only  fifty  or 
sixty  priests,  who  had  come  from  different  parts  of  the 
empire.  Occasionally  there  are  above  i,ooo  within  these 
walls,  whose  sleeping-berths  seemed  destitute  of  every  ves- 
tige of  comfort,  while  the  mess-room  and  kitchens  looked 
the  very  reverse.  In  one  of  the  kitchens  a huge  boiler  was 
pointed  out,  in  which,  they  said,  as  much  rice  could  be  boiled 
at  one  time  as  to  feed  about  2,000  persons.  The  head  priest 
invited  me  into  his  sitting-room,  where  we  conversed  on  a 
variety  of  subjects.  He  and  his  attendants  listened  to  my 
remarks  on  the  existence  of  the  only  true  God  and  his  claims 
to  our  homage;  and,  touching  the  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  it 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


163 


appeared  they  had  obtained,  at  different  times,  some  por- 
tions of  our  Sacred  Scriptures  and  of  Christian  tracts  in 
Chinese. 

DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  TAOUIST  AND  BUDDHIST 

''Without  speaking  of  the  difference  in  their  doctrines, 
ceremonies,  and  canonicals,  the  marked  distinction  between 
the  Taouist  and  Buddhist  priests  that  I encountered  on 
this  occasion  was  this: — The  priests  of  Buddha  had  their 
heads  clean  shaven,  without  a relic  of  hair  left.  Those  of 
the  Taouist  religion,  however,  shaved  as  their  countrymen 
generally  did, — nourishing  the  hair  upon  the  crown  of  the 
head,  until  it  became  long  enough  to  make  a kondeh,  which 
they  fixed  with  a hair-pin ; so  that  the  only  difference  from 
the  commonalty  was  in  the  Taouist  priests  tying  up  the 
hair  in  a tuft  on  the  crown,  while  the  people  generally  let  it 
dangle  in  the  form  of  a queue. 

ANOTHER  TEMPLE 

"To  pass  on  to  other  buildings  in  this  city  worth  a visit: 
There  was  'the  palace  of  the  God  of  the  Eastern  Range.’ — 
In  China  there  are  'Five  yohy’  or  ranges  of  lofty  mountains, 
that  have  given  rise  to  a good  deal  of  fabulous  matter ; the 
Eastern  chain,  the  Taishan  mountains,  in  Shantung;  the 
Western  chain,  the  Hwashan,  in  Shensi ; the  Southern 
chain,  the  Hungshan,  in  Hoopeh ; the  Northern  chain,  the 
Hanshan,  in  Shansi;  and  the  Central  chain,  the  Sungshan, 
in  Honan.  Each  is  supposed  to  be  the  residence  of  a pre- 
siding deity. — To  the  resident  genius  of  the  Eastern  range 
this  building  is  consecrated.  It  lay  to  the  south  of  the 
'Bridge-gate,’  from  which  I discovered  a path  close  under 
the  city  walls  leading  direct  to  it.  The  range  of  the  edifice 
was  long.  It  bore  an  elegant  front  decorated  with  a group 


164 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


of  handsome  reliefs,  among  which  was  embossed  in  gilt 
its  name.  On  entering,  I found  it  almost  deserted.  None 
of  the  regular  priesthood  made  their  appearance,  nor  were 
votaries  to  be  seen.  The  only  persons  to  be  descied  (except 
the  door-keeper)  were  the  mat-makers.  It  appeared  to  be 
more  a mat-mart  than  a sacred  building.  The  images  were 
dusty  and  filthy,  besides  showing  other  signs  of  disuse  and 
neglect.  On  pushing  my  way  to  the  extreme  end,  I espied 
a gallery  of  idols,  and  attempted  to  ascend  the  staircase. 
As  the  doors  were  barred,  admission  could  not  be  gained, 
and  my  attention  was  called  to  two  notices,  the  one  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  right-hand  flight  of  steps,  warning 
'(those  that  eat)  strong  meat  (and  drink)  wine  not  to  enter 
the  other  upon  the  opposite  side,  advising  'the  unclean’  per- 
son hastily  to  retire.  Passing  out  to  the  street,  I perceived 
a wicket  on  the  right  hand  of  the  principal  gateway.  It  was 
opened  to  me,  and  I was  invited  to  look  on  illustrations  in- 
tended to  depict  the  terrors  of  hell.  The  apartment,  a dark, 
dreary  cell,  is  called  teyohy  'the  earthly  dungeon.’  In  the 
center  of  the  ground-floor  there  were  images  of  hideous 
aspect  in  threatening  attitudes,  and  behind  them  groups 
of  small  figures  in  stucco  relief  plastered  upon  the  wall,  tO' 
exhibit  the  pains  and  penalties  of  hell.  These  were  arranged 
in  three  or  four  rows,  rising  one  above  the  other  until  they 
reached  the  ceiling.  Each  group  had  its  judge,  criminal, 
executioners,  and  peculiar  form  of  punishment.  The  judges 
were  attired  as  officers  generally  are,  and  the  executioners 
as  police-runners.  The  grade  of  penalties  was  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  heinousness  of  the  culprit’s  crime,  and  the 
horrors  of  future  punishment  were  depicted  before  the 
spectator  in  every  possible  form.  To  be  whipped,  to  be 
bastinadoed,  to  be  seared  with  red-hot  irons,  to  be  stran- 
gled, to  be  speared,  to  be  beheaded,  to  be  sawn  asunder,  to  be 
flayed  alive,  to  be  squeezed,  flattened,  and  crushed  between 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


165 


two  thick  planks,  to  be  slit  up,  to  be  bored  through  and 
through,  to  have  the  eyes  dug  or  chiselled  out,  to  have  the 
limbs  torn  off  one  by  one,  to  be  plunged  from  a cliff  or  a 
bridge  into  a dungeon  below,  or  into  a rapid  torrent,  to  be 
pounded  in  a heavy  mortar,  to  be  .boiled  in  a hot-water 
caldron,  to  be  burnt  up  in  a furnace,  to  be  baked  at  the 
stake,  to  have  hot  liquids  poured  down  the  throat,  etc.,  etc., 
constitute  the  ideas  of  future  punishments  indulged  in  the 
books  of  this  school,  a counterpart  of  the  torments  inflicted 
by  the  Inquisition  in  Europe  upon  the  magnanimous  ad- 
herents to  the  Protestant  faith. 

A LIBRARY 

‘'En  route  I visited  the  T’ienyih-koh,  a valuable  reposi- 
tory of  Chinese  works,  chiefly  those  published  anterior  to 
the  opening  of  the  present  dynasty, — a collection  said  to  be- 
long to  the  Fan  family,  a member  of  which  was  keeping  it. 
The  works  were  arranged  in  300  classes,  and  the  cases  in 
which  they  were  deposited  were  closely  shut,  to  be  opened 
only  on  special  occasions. 

THE  TOWER  OF  NINGPO 

‘Turning  from  this  spot,  I bent  my  steps  to  the  Tieii- 
fung  t‘ah,  named  by  foreigners  the  Tower  of  Ningpo,'  the 
‘Pagoda  of  Ningpo,’  or  the  ‘Ningpo  Obelisk.’  As  you  as- 
cend the  river  from  Chinhai  and  come  within  five  miles  of 
Ningpo,  this  is  the  most  prominent  object  that  arrests  the 
eye ; and,  to  foreigners  who  visit  the  city,  it  is  a point  of  no 
little  attraction.  As  soon  as  they  enter  the  east  gate  of  the 
city,  they  make  for  it,  and  wend  their  way  in  a southwest 
direction.  After  shaping  their  course  through  number- 
less streets,  it  abruptly  bursts  upon  their  view,  rising  160 
feet  over  their  heads,  and  towering  high  above  the  sur- 


166 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


rounding  houses.  This  pyramid  is  hexagonal,  and  counts 
seven  stories  and  above  twenty-eight  windows.  At  every 
window  there  is  a lantern  hung  up;  and  when  the  obelisk 
is  illuminated,  which  I have  seen  only  once  during  my  stay, 
the  scene  is  very  gay.  On  my  visit,  the  building  was  in 
much  need  of  repair,  as  it  was  daily  becoming  more  dilapi- 
dated, and  had  already  deviated  considerably  from  the  per- 
pendicular, so  that  it  might  not  inappropriately  be  called 
^the  Leaning  Tower  of  Ningpo.’  As  it  was  in  the  keeping 
of  a Buddhistic  priest  who  lived  in  a monastery  behind,  I 
was  under  the  necessity  of  awaiting  his  arrival.  He,  poor 
man,  found  it  advantageous  to  keep  the  keys.  It  was  in  that 
way  alone  he  could  secure  the  largesses  of  his  foreign  vis- 
itors. By  ascending  a flight  of  narrow  wooden  steps  that 
ran  up  in  a spiral  course  through  the  interior  of  the  column, 
I reached  the  uppermost  story,  from  which  one  of  the  finest 
views  one  could  desire  opened : — the  entire  city  and  suburbs 
beneath;  the  valley  of  Ningpo,  with  its  hamlets,  villages, 
hills,  mountain  rivulets,  and  rivers  all  around;  and,  away 
in  the  distance,  bounding  the  horizon,  chains  of  mountains 
on  the  one  hand,  the  sea  with  its  islands  on  the  other. 
Within  the  tower  itself  there  was  nothing  to  interest  a 
visitor  except  the  scribbling  of  Englishmen,  some  of  whom 
seem  to  have  been  very  solicitous  to  register  their  names 
on  its  dome  for  the  benefit  of  posterity.  The  following  was 
one  of  the  many  scratches : 

“ T.  Anstruther,  prisoner,  September  i6th,  1839 — February 
23rd,  1840. 

T.  Anstruther,  free  and  master,  October  13th,  1841.’  ^ 

in  which  a lapsus  manus  had  entered  an  ante-date  of  1839 
and  1840,  for  1840  and  1841.  On  descending  from  the  lively 
spectacle  I had  been  witnessing  above,  I found  myself 
among  ‘heaps  of  the  slain the  poorer  classes  having  se- 
lected the  outer  base  of  the  edifice,  as  a suitable  spot  on 
which  to  deposit  the  coffins  of  their  dead. 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


167 


‘‘The  date  at  which  this  tower  was  founded  is  exceeding- 
ly antique,  indeed  more  ancient  than  the  city  itself.  The 
district  of  Ningpo,  in  the  time  of  the  original  Han  dynasty, 
or  at  the  opening  of  the  Christian  era,  was  very  small.  Dur- 
ing the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  centuries,  it  rose  in  im- 
portance. At  the  commencement  of  the  tenth  century,  and 
in  the  reign  of  Taitsoo — the  first  monarch  in  the  line  of  ‘the 
Five  Dynasties’  which  successively  contended  for  the  mas- 
tery— it  was  organized  a larger  district.  During  that  em- 
peror’s short  sway,  the  foundation  of  the  city  walls  was  laid 
by  Hwangshing,  a native  of  the  place.  But  the  ‘Tower  of 
Ningpo,’  had  been  reared  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  previous  to  that  event.  In  raising  this  super- 
structure at  that  anterior  date,  the  object  sought  for  ac- 
corded precisely  with  the  belief,  which  at  the  present  day 
obtains  through  the  whole  empire,  that  the  presence  of  such 
an  edifice  not  only  secures,  to  the  site  the  protection  and 
favor  of  heaven,  if  it  already  bears  evidence  of  enjoying  it, 
but  represses  any  evil  influences  that  may  be  native  to  the 
spot,  and  imparts  to  it  the  most  salutary  and  felicitous 
omens.  The  tower  has  stood  for  the  last  i,ioo  years.  But 
its  history  during  that  period,  as  given  in  ‘the  Annals’  al- 
ready referred  to,  has  been  much  chequered.  It  has  fallen 
to  ruins  and  been  rebuilt.  It  has  been  burnt  almost  to  the 
ground  and  been  reconstructed.  It  has  been  struck  by 
lightning  and  been  repaired.  Its  pinnacle  has  been  blown 
down  in  a hurricane  and  has  been  restored.  Some  portions 
of  it  are  now  undergoing  amendment.  But  its  days  appear 
to  be  numbered,  and  ere  long  its  downfall  may  be  an- 
nounced. 

THE  LITERARY  HALL 

“Still  pursuing  my  walk,  I came  to  Hien-Hiohkung, 
‘the  District  Literary  Hall.’  Each  department  in  the  em- 


168 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


pire  owns  a literary  hall ; so  also  does  each  district.  Ac- 
cordingly this  city,  being  both  a district  and  a department 
city,  has  two  such  halls.  The  district  college  was  laid  in 
ruins  amid  the  disasters  of  1841,  and,  when  I visited  it,  was 
rising  out  of  a mass  of  wrecked  materials  into  a neat,  order- 
ly, attractive  range  of  buildings.  In  these  days,  there  is 
more  name  and  show  than  reality  or  utility  in  such  an  in- 
stitute. It  was  originally  designed  to  Ee  the  residence  of 
the  literary  officer,  or  government  superintendent  ap- 
pointed to  preside  over  the  interests  of  learning  in  the  dis- 
trict, but  especially  to  patronize  and  promote  the  studies  and 
views  of  those  candidates  who  should  be  so  successful  as 
to  take  the  first  degree.  Here  they  were  to  pursue  their 
daily  studies,  and  to  undergo  their  monthly  examinations, 
under  his  immediate  inspection.  But,  from  the  degeneracy 
of  the  age,  it  has  almost  become  the  seat  of  a sinecure. 

A CONFUCIAN  TEMPLE 

^The  Department  Hall,  dedicated  to  Confucius,  is  a 
magnificent  flight  of  very  roomy  buildings  in  the  northern 
quarter  of  the  city.  It  was  occupied  by  the  British  officers 
in  1841.  Its  first  foundations  were  laid  in  another  part  of 
the  city,  in  the  eighth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  It  was 
removed  to  its  present  site  three  hundred  years  afterwards. 
There  was  little  to  interest  the  eye  here  beyond  the  exten- 
sive grounds,  the  capacious  and  vaulted  halls,  the  gilded, 
carved,  and  decorated  roofs,  the  pillars,  walls,  and  tablets, 
commemorative  of  the  virtues  and  honors  of  Confucius  and 
his  earliest  and  most  renowned  followers.  The  central  tab- 
let of  all,  raised  upon  an  elevated  stone  pedestal,  bore  the 
following  inscription: — ^The  Spiritual  Seat  of  the  Most 
Holy  Teacher,  Confucius.’  There  was  no  image ; but  be- 
fore this  tens  of  thousands  have  paid  divine  adoration  and 
worship,  and  a native  of  Ningpo  informed  me  that  ‘an- 


REAL  LIFE  AT  NINGPO 


169 


niially,  at  the  opening  of  the  spring  and  the  autumn  seasons 
respectively,  before  this  shrine  they  offer  up  to  the  most 
holy  sage  one  cow,  one  sheep,  one  pig,  with  a certain  num- 
ber of  pieces  of  silk  and  a variety  of  sacrificial  vessels  filled 
with  grain,  dried  fruits,  and  vegetables/ 

ICE-HOUSES 

‘‘Rambling  out  of  the  city,  I got  into  lumber-yards, 
dockyards,  etc.,  and,  among  other  curiosities,  found  ice- 
houses, on  the  banks  of  the  river.  Most  of  these  ice-de- 
positories were  not  built  under  but  above  ground,  generally 
on  a platform  of  earth,  so  elevated  as  to  be  out  of  the  reach 
of  the  freshets  of  the  river  and  neighboring  swamps.  Upon 
this  mound  a bamboo  frame  was  thrown  and  closely 
thatched  over  with  paddy-straw.  The  ice  had  been  taken 
from  the  surrounding  fields,  tanks,  and  ponds,  which  the 
proprietors  of  the  ice-stores  filled  with  water  during  the 
frost.  When  of  a sufficient  thickness,  it  was  collected ; and 
as  it  was  brought  in  each  layer  was  covered  with  dry  straw, 
to  preserve  it  during  the  summer.  Every  ice-house  had  its 
drain  to  carry  off  the  meltings.  . The  article  was  not  used 
by  the  natives  at  Ningpo,  except  as  an  antiseptic  for  flesh 
and  fish  during  the  heats  of  summer.  The  people  knew 
nothing  of  cooling  liquids,  except  as  they  had  observed 
foreigners  use  ice  for  that  purpose ; and  they  were  quite  con- 
tent to  sell  me  a basket  of  it  for  3d,  or  4d.,  a charge  by  no 
means  extravagant  during  the  dog-days.  The  population 
of  Ningpo  was  supplied  with  fish  caught  several  leagues 
from  the  coast;  and  as  without  ice  it  would  have  been  al- 
together impracticable  to  bring  it  to  town  in  an  eatable 
state,  the  fishermen  were  regularly  supplied  with  it  from 
these  houses.  To  keep  the  article  from  dissolving,  the 
hatchways  of  the  ice-junks  were  covered  with  straw  and 
mats,  constantly  kept  moist  with  sea-water.  In  a journal 


170 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


kept  during  one  of  the  Burmese  embassies  from  Ava  to 
Pekin, — translated  by  Lieut.-Colonel  Burney, — ^the  follow- 
ing odd  paragraph  is  to  be  found: — ‘For  the  use  of  the 
Chinese  emperor  in  the  hot  season,  the  ice  in  the  lake  to  the 
northwest  of  his  palace-inclosure  is  broken  open,  as  we  saw, 
with  hatchets,  and  axes,  etc. ; and  pieces  about  three  or 
four  cubits  thick  and  two  or  three  long,  have  holes  made 
at  one  end,  as  is  done  by  us  to  logs  of  timber,  and  are  corT^ 
veyed  by  ropes  and  put  into  the  moat  surrounding  the 
palace-inclosure.  This  ice  melts  and  becomes  water,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  increasing  heat  in  the  month  of  March.’  In 
this  manner  his  Imperial  majesty  is  iced  during  the  summer ! 
— at  least  so  imagination  would  have  it. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

CHINESE  WOMEN  DESCRIBED  BY  A CHINAMAN. 

The  Chinese  woman  is  usually  imagined  as  a pitiful  being, 
scarcely  able  to  walk,  and  imprisoned  in  her  household 
among  the  servants  and  concubines  of  her  husband.  This 
is  another  flight  of  imagination  to  be  cut  short,  however 
much  it  may  hurt  the  feeelings  of  veracious  travelers. 

There  is  a striking  similarity  between  what  is  recounted 
on  this  head  and  the  celebrated  definition  of  a lobster,  which 
a certain  dictionary  solemnly  stated  to  be  a “little  red  fish 
that  walks  backwards.”  Of  course  it  is  hard  to  alter  an 
opinion  to  which  one  is  accustomed ; but  in  presence  of  evi- 
dence the  most  honest  course  is  to  own  one’s  mistake,  and 
resolve  not  to  be  taken  in  again. 

Lobsters,  then,  are  not  red,  nor  ever  have  been;  and  a 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


171 


Chinese  woman  walks  just  as  well  as  you  or  I.  She  even 
runs  upon  her  little  feet,  and,  to  add  the  last  drop  to  the 
story-teller's  bitter  cup,  she  goes  out  walking,  or  in  her 
palanquin,  and  has  not  even  a veil  to  hide  her  from  indis- 
creet gazers. 

What  a curious  book,  for  the  Chinese,  might  be  made 
with  all  that  is  said  about  them ! What  would  be  their  aston- 
ishment to  find  themselves  so  imperfectly  known,  when  so 
many  travelers  have  passed  through  their  cities  and  received 
their  hospitality ! But  one  of  the  least  flattering  errors,  and 
one  which  I venture  to  rectify,  is  that  which  makes  woman 
a ridiculous,  grotesque  being,  without  influence,  created 
only  to  bring  children  into  the  world. 

This  is  a singular  idea  to  create  of  our  women.  Certainly, 
they  do  not  resemble  women  in  the  West;  but  they  are 
women  notwithstanding,  with  all  those  qualities  impossible 
to  define;  and,  with  some  slight  shades  of  difference,  all 
are  daughters  of  Eve,  if  by  that  expression  is  to  be  under- 
stood the  instinctive  disposition  which  impels  them  to  hen- 
peck  the  male  sex.  The  best  service  to  render  a woman  is 
to  guide  her,  and  to  flatter  her  self-love  by  allowing  her  to 
believe  she  is  guiding  you. 

Our  traditions  allow  us  to  promote  the  happiness  of 
woman,  inasmuch  as  with  us  the  masculine  is  represented 
by  the  sun,  and  the  feminine  by  the  moon — the  one  illumi- 
nates, the  other  is  illuminated ; the  one  is  radiant  with  splen- 
dor, the  other  borrows  from  it  its  pale  reflections.  But  the 
sun  is  a beneficent  and  generous  luminary,  and  the  light  it 
bestows  upon  the  moon  has  also  the  gift  of  illuxnination ; 
it  has  a tempered  softness,  calming  the  wounded  spirit  and 
soothing  the  passions  of  the  heart. 

I have  observed  the  sun  is  of  the  masculine  gender  in 
most  languages,  except  in  German,  in  which  the  moon  is 
masculine  and  the  sun  feminine.  This  is  a curious  excep- 


172 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


tion,  which  would  be  much  commented  by  a sage  of  the 
Celestial  Empire.  He  would  suppose  the  German  women 
were  occupied  with  politics,  and  managed  the  helm  of  the 
State,  while  the  men  worked  at  their  daughters’  trousseaux. 
This  would  not  be  altogether  conformable  to  the  truth. 

However,  since  exceptions  are  said  to  prove  rules,  we 
may  admit  as  a law  the  superiority  of  the  masculine  gender 
over  the  feminine.  In  China  this  law  has  the  force  of  a 
law  of  Nature,  and  gives  birth  to  certain  consequences  which 
have  founded  customs  and  created  duties. 

Man  and  woman,  as  members  of  the  family,  have  special 
duties,  to  which  different  systems  of  education  are  adapted. 
Their  social  position  is  settled  beforehand,  and  each  is 
brought  up  to  follow  the  fitting  direction.  Man  and  woman 
then  receive  a separate  education.  The  one  is  occupied 
with  studies  leading  to  State  employment ; the  other  adorns 
her  intelligence  v\^ith  useful  knowledge,  and  learns  the 
invaluable  science  of  the  household. 

We  consider  the  depths  of  science  a useless  burden  to 
women;  not  that  we  insult  them  by  supposing  they  are 
inferior  to  us  in  ability  to  study  art  and  science,  but  because 
it  would  be  leading  them  out  of  their  true  path.  Woman 
has  no  need  to  perfect  herself:  she  is  born  perfect;  and 
science  would  teach  her  neither  grace  nor  sweetness — those 
two  lords  of  the  domestic  hearth  inspired  by  Nature. 

These  principles  are  essential  to  Chinese  manners,  and 
what  distinguishes  them  is  that  they  are  applied  literally, 
like  a necessity. 

Our  women  may  be  unacquainted  with  the  ante-chambers 
of  ministers  and  fashionable  receptions,  in  which  the  Euro- 
pean woman  assumes  all  the  seductions  of  her  sex  to  charm 
the  society  of  men ; but  they  have  no  need  to  regret  the  loss. 
Her  existence  has  no  importance  in  a political  point  of  view, 
and  the  men  manage  their  own  affairs ; but  cross  the  thresh- 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


173 


old  of  the  house,  and  you  enter  her  domain,  governed  with 
an  authority  that  European  women  certainly  do  not  possess^ 

In  France,  for  instance,  the  wife  follows  the  condition  of 
her  husband,  but  in  no  part  of  the  world  is  she  more  subject 
to  the  husband.  I was  simple  enough  to  suppose  that  this 
word  ‘'condition’’  was  of  great  significance,  but  I soon  dis- 
covered that  the  law  must  be  studied  in  order  to  under- 
stand it,  and  to  perceive  that  it  gives  the  wife  no  power 
whatever.  By  marrying,  a woman  becomes  a minor,  an 
outlaw — she  is  under  guardianship ; and  the  law  empowers 
the  husband  to  prevent  his  wife  from  disposing  of  her  own 
property. 

These  are  details  of  manners  and  customs  which 
might  well  astonish  the  Chinese  women.  They  can  replace 
their  husbands  in  every  circumstance  of  ownership ; and  the 
law  recognizes  their  right  to  sell  and  to  buy,  to  alienate 
common  property,  to  draw  bills,  to  give  their  children  in 
marriage,  and  give  them  what  dowry  they  please.  In  a 
word,  they  are  free;  and  it  will  be  the  more  easily  under- 
stood that  this  should  be  the  case  when  I state  that  in  China 
there  are  neither  notaries  nor  lawyers,  and  it  has  therefore 
been  unnecessary  to  create  legal  exceptions  in  order  to  pro- 
vide employment  for  that  class. 

Family  life  is  the  education  which  forms  the  Chinese 
woman,  and  she  only  aspires  to  be  learned  in  the  art  of 
governing  her  family.  She  superintends  her  children’s 
education,  and  is  content  to  devote  her  existence  to  her 
family.  If  fate  gives  her  a good  husband,  she  is  certainly 
the  happiest  of  women. 

I have  said  elsewhere  that  the  honors  obtained  by  the 
husband  are  shared  by  the  wife,  and  that  even  by  her  chil- 
dren she  may  attain  every  satisfaction  of  vanity — that  weak- 
ness of  the  human  heart  excusable  in  every  clime. 

It  is  therefore  her  interest  to  marry,  in  order  to  elevate 


174 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


her  rank ; it  is  even  her  interest  to  perform  all  the  duties  of 
maternity. 

The  existence  of  our  women  is  more  to  be  envied  than 
criticized,  since  it  is  conformable  to  the  order  established  by 
Providence;  and  I know  plenty  of  Europeans  who  would 
indorse  my  opinion  if  they  dared. 

CONCUBINAGE. 

This  subject  would  lose  its  interest  if  I forbore  to  men- 
tion concubinage:  that  is  the  catchword  of  this  section  of 
my  essay. 

The  ill-odor  attaching  to  the  word  itself  will  prevent  me 
from  finding  an  impartial  reader ; for  you  may  have  as  many 
mistresses  as  you  please,  but  not  a concubine.  It  all  de- 
pends upon  the  name.  Had  it  been  said  the  Chinese  had 
mistresses,  they  would  have  escaped  criticism.  These  are 
distinctions  difficult  to  explain.  The  mistress  or  concubine 
in  China  differs  from  the  mistress  in  Europe  inasmuch  as 
in  China  she  is  recognized — she  is  a kind  of  legitimate  mis- 
tress. 

Circumstances  may  exist,  quite  easily,  under  which  a 
marriage  ceases  to  be  what  it  ought  to  be.  Special  reasons 
may  arise  to  cut  short  a husband’s  matrimonial  career.  Fre- 
quently change  of  temper  or  infirmities  may  be  the  cause. 
In  Europe  men  easily  find  mistresses,  and  the  double  menage 
is  not  an  unknown  institution  in  the  Christian  world. 

According  to  our  social  system,  in  which  the  future  of 
the  rising  generation  is  the  chief  care,  and  in  which  the 
family  prosperity  is  the  family  honor  itself,  the  dispersion  of 
children  born  out  of  wedlock  would  be  contrary  to  estab- 
lished custom.  Concubinage  was  therefore  instituted  with 
this  object,  and  it  leaves  no  excuse  for  seeking  adventures 
away  from  home. 

The  institution  itself  is  very  difficult  to  tolerate  on  first 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


175 


acquaintance — to  a European  it  appears  indelicate ; but 
under  the  cloak  of  delicacy  much  greater  crimes  are  com- 
mitted when  children  born  of  illicit  unions  are  thrown  upon 
the  world  with  an  ineffaceable  stain  upon  their  condition, 
and  find  themselves  with  neither  resources  nor  family.  I 
consider  these  evils  graver  than  the  brutality  of  concu- 
binage. 

What  excuses  the  system  is,  that  it  is  tolerated  by  the 
legitimate  wife;  and  she  at  least  knows  the  value  of  the 
sacrifice  she  makes ; for  love  binds  hearts  together  in  China 
as  elsewhere.  But  true  love  weighs  two  evils,  and  in  the 
family  interest  chooses  the  lesser. 

Monogamy  is  the  character  of  Chinese  marriage.  The 
law  punishes  most  severely  any  person  who  contracts  a 
second  marriage  while  the  first  exists.  The  institution  of 
concubinage  takes  nothing  from  the  indissolubility  of  mar- 
riage. I might  even  say,  at  the  risk  of  surprising  my  lady 
readers,  that  it  strengthens  that  indissolubility.  The  concu- 
bine can  only  enter  a family  with  the  authorization  of  the 
legitimate  wife,  and  under  certain  conditions.  This  consent 
is  not  lightly  given,  and  is  only  accorded  in  a spirit  of  devo- 
tion to  the  family,  and  in  order  that  the  husband  may  have 
children  to  honor  their  ancestors. 

I perceive  that  I am  trying  to  excuse  this  custom  rather 
than  defend  it,  and  am  forgetting  that  after  all  it  is  only  a 
faithful  copy  of  the  manners  of  ancient  times.  Do  we 
not  read  in  the  Bible:  ‘‘Now  Sarah,  Abram’s  wife,  bare 
him  no  children;  and  she  had  an  handmaid,  an  Egyptian, 
whose  name  was  Hagar.  And  Sarah  said  unto  Abram, 
‘Behold,  now,  the  Lord  hath  restrained  me  from  bearing;  I 
pray  thee  go  in  unto  my  maid ; it  may  be  that  I may  obtain 
children  by  her,’  And  Abram  hearkened  to  the  voice  of 
Sarah.” 

This  is,  then,  the  horrible  example  that  our  customs 


176 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


have  copied.  To  be  truthful,  I ought  to  confess  that,  imi- 
tating in  her  turn  the  conduct  of  Hagar,  a concubine  will 
often  abuse  the  peculiar  situation  she  occupies,  by  despising 
the  legitimate  wife.  These  are  the  drawbacks  of  the  insti- 
tution. Although  therefore  the  custom  exists,  and  is  not 
considered  immoral,  it  is  not  rare  to  find  families  into  which 
a concubine  will  never  be  allowed  to  enter  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. 

At  all  events,  concubines  are  nearly  always  taken  from 
the  lower  class,  or  from  among  poor  relations.  The  children 
are  considered  to  be  the  legitimate  children  of  the  legitimate 
wife,  in  case  the  latter  has  none  of  her  own ; if,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  wife  has  children  already,  the  others  are  consid- 
ered as  recognized  children — that  is  to  say,  as  having  the 
same  rights  as  the  legitimate  children. 

The  concubine  is  bound  to  obey  the  legitimate  wife,  and 
considers  herself  in  her  service. 

That  is  all! 

MARRIAGE. 

In  China  the  old  bachelor  and  old  maid  are  considered 
phenomenal. 

I purposely  begin  the  subject  under  the  protection  of 
this  observation : I shall  be  the  better  enabled  to  make  the 
most  singular  statements  without  exciting  too  much  sur- 
prise. The  old  bachelor  and  old  maid  are  essentially  western 
productions;  and  that  kind  of  existence  is  absolutely  con- 
trary to  our  ideas. 

In  Europe  it  is  said  every  valid  man  is  a soldier  ; with 
us  the  same  formula  may  hold  good ; it  suffices  to  substitute 
for  the  word  ‘‘soldier’"  that  of  “husband.” 

Quite  seriously,  celibacy  is  looked  upon  as  a vice. 
Reasons  must  be  given  to  excuse  it.  In  the  West  one  must 
have  excuses  to  explain  marriage.  The  details  that  follow 
are  therefore  necessarily  curious. 


Confucian  Temple,  Forbidden  City,  Pekin. 


V 


'4> 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


177 


The  Chinese  marry  at  a very  early  age:  usually  before 
twenty.  It  is  by  no  means  rare  to  see  young  men  of  sixteen 
marry  girls  of  fourteen;  and  there  are  grandmothers  of 
thirty ! It  is  useless  to  seek  climatic  causes  for  this : it  is  a 
consequence  of  the  family  institution  itself,  and  of  the 
ancestral  cultus.  In  the  north  and  in  the  south  of  China, 
that  is,  in  regions  of  tropical  heat  or  of  Siberian  cold,  the 
peculiarity  remains  the  same:  early  marriage  is  universal 
throughout  the  empire. 

The  first  preoccupation  of  the  parents  is  the  boy’s  mar- 
riage as  soon  as  adolescence  appears,  and  even  long  before 
that  period  they  make  their  choice.  They  have  already 
announced  to  friends  their  wish  to  unite  their  son  to  the 
daughter  ofdhe  latter.  It  is  agreed  between  them  to  realize 
the  wish  when  the  time  shall  arrive.  Often  the  choice  of  a 
wife  falls  within  the  circle  of  the  family  itself.  There  are 
also  friends’  friends  who  busy  themselves  with  making 
marriages,  who  serve  as  disinterested  intermediaries,  and 
sometimes  couple  the  right  persons.  For  with  us,  as  else- 
where, marriage  is  a lottery,  and  the  couple  only  know  each 
other  after  they  are  married. 

To  go  courting  is  an  unknown  duty,  and  moreover  one 
that  our  manners  do  not  admit.  In  Europe,  before  mar- 
riage, a few  weeks  are  given  as  an  apprenticeship  in  the  art 
of  love.  It  is  a sort  of  first  stage,  a kind  of  truce  preceding 
the  great  battle,  and  the  interval  is  filled  up  with  fetes  and 
great  dinners.  It  is  a charming  existence,  serving  as  preface 
to  marriage,  and  whose  memories  will  become  all  the  more 
precious  as  the  years  of  marriage  roll  on.  It  seems  evident 
that  nobody  wishes  to  incur  the  responsibility  of  the  pro- 
jected union.  They  say  to  the  young  people,  ‘'Learn  to  ; 
know  each  other;  you  have  two  months,  and  then  you  can  ' 
say  ‘Yes,’  or  ‘No.’  ” Do  they  know  each  other?  or  rather,  \ 
can  they  know  each  other  ? Evidently  not.  I conclude,  then, 


178 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


that  it  is  best  for  the  parents  to  be  the  sole  responsible 
matrimonial  agents,  and  for  the  children  to  marry  when 
they  are  told. 

I have  heard  the  phrase : ‘The  happiest  period  of  mar- 
riage is  before  the  marriage  takes  place.’'  A Parisian  would 
say  that  only  a married  man  could  have  made  that  asser- 
tion; one  must  confess,  however,  that  their  manners  are  at 
least  as  curious  as  ours. 

Marriages  are  contracted  upon  the  principle  between 
families  of  the  same  social  standing.  Certainly  there  are 
eccentric  marriages,  but  they  are  exceptions. 

When  the  choice  is  settled — that  is,  when  the  young 
girl  has  been  fixed  upon — the  parents  of  the  future  husband 
make  an  official  demand  in  marriage.  That  demand  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  ceremony  of  betrothal. 

On  that  occasion  the  parents  exchange  marriage  con- 
tracts signed  by  the  heads  of  the  families  and  themselves. 
The  heads  of  families  with  us  replace  the  civil  officers  and 
notaries.  Then  the  bridegroom  sends  the  bride  two  bracelets 
of  gold  or  silver,  according  to  the  fortune  of  the  family,  as 
betrothal  presents.  These  customs  are  the  same  as  in 
Europe;  but  in  China  they  are  accomplished  without  the 
presence  of  the  bride.  The  bracelets  are  tied  together  by  a 
scarlet  thread,  symbolizing  the  conjugal  bond. 

The  presentation  of  the  wedding  gift  takes  place  some 
time  afterwards,  and  is  the  occasion  of  pompous  ceremonies. 

The  bridegroom  sends  his  bride  a score  or  two  baskets, 
richly  ornamented  and  containing  silk,  cotton,  embroidery, 
flowers — in  a word,  everything  pertaining  to  the  bride’s 
toilet.  To  these  presents,  which  may  be  of  great  value,  are 
added  exquisite  viands  for  the  family,  and  in  particular 
specially  made  cakes,  which  the  family  of  the  bride  have  to 
distribute  to  all  their  friends,  with  the  official  announcement 
of  their  daughter’s  marriage.  On  her  part  the  bride,  after 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


179 


receipt  of  the  gift,  sends  her  betrothed  a dress,  or  the  uni- 
form of  his  rank  if  he  is  already  a Mandarin,  to  be  worn  on 
the  wedding  day.  In  each  of  the  two  families  a great  festival 
on  the  day  of  betrothal  unites  relations  and  mutual  friends. 

The  marriage  has  always  to  be  celebrated  during  the 
year  in  which  the  present  has  been  sent.  On  the  eve  of  the 
day  fixed  for  the  ceremony  the  young  girl’s  parents  send 
to  the  husband  everything  constituting  his  wife’s  dowry — 
her  dresses,  plate,  furniture,  linen — in  fact,  all  her  house- 
hold goods.  The  transmission  of  these  objects  is  always 
made  the  occasion  of  much  ostentation. 

The  evening  of  the  same  day  at  seven  o’clock  the  hus- 
band’s family  send  his  bride  a palanquin  lined  with  embroid- 
ered red  satin.  This  is  preceded  by  a band  of  musicians; 
servants  carrying  lanterns  or  torches;  if  the  family  has 
official  rank,  a red  umbrella  and  a green  fan  (these  are  the 
official  insignia),  and  the  tablets  upon  which  are  inscribed 
all  the  titles  the  family  has  possessed  for  several  generations, 
The  same  evening  the  bride’s  family  gives  a grand  dinner 
called  "‘invitation,”  and  the  palanquin  is  displayed  in  the 
middle  of  the  apartment  to  be  admired  by  the  guests.  Dur- 
ing the  dinner  the  musicians  sent  by  the  son-in-law  discourse 
joyful  music.  The  husband’s  family  likewise  gives  a grand 
invitation  dinner,  and  all  the  objects  forming  the  bride’s - 
dowry  are  exposed  to  the  general  gaze.  On  the  wedding 
day,  in  the  morning,  four  persons,  chosen  among  the  rela- 
tives or  friends  of  the  bridegroom,  proceed  to  the  house  of 
the  bride  and  invite  her  to  come  to  the  house  of  her  be- 
trothed. She  gets  into  the  palanquin  and  is  carried  by  four 
or  eight  men,  according  to  the  rank  of  her  family  and  of 
that  she  is  about  to  enter. 

Her  palanquin  is  preceded  by  the  four  envoys,  and  the 
procession  thus  formed  proceeds  to  the  house  of  the  bride- 
groom’s family.  Its  arrival  is  announced  by  joyous  flour- 


180 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ishes  of  music  and  the  detonation  of  fireworks.  The  palan- 
quin is  then  carried  into  the  apartment  where  the  family, 
the  friends,  bridesmaids,  and  groomsmen  are  assembled. 
One  of  the  latter,  carrying  a metallic  mirror  before  him, 
approaches  the  palanquin,  the  curtains  of  which  are  still 
close  drawn,  and  salutes  thrice.  Then  one  of  the  brides- 
maids, drawing  aside  the  curtain,  invites  the  bride  (who  is 
still  veiled)  to  alight  and  enter  her  room,  where  the  bride- 
groom awaits  her  in  ceremonial  costume.  This  is  the 
moment  in  which  the  pair  see  each  other  for  the  first  time. 
After  this  interview  they  are  taken  to  the  drawing-room  by 
two  persons  who  have  already  been  a long  time  married, 
and  have  had  male  children.  These  are  the  veterans  of 
marriage,  and  we  designate  them  ‘'the  happy  couple.’' 

In  the  middle  of  the  drawing-room  is  a table  upon  which 
have  been  placed  a censer,  fruits,  and  wine.  In  our  idea 
this  table  is  exposed  to  the  sight  of  heaven.  The  pair  then 
prostrate  themselves  before  the  table  to  thank  the  Supreme 
Being  for  having  created  them,  the  earth  for  having  nour- 
ished them,  the  Emperor  for  protecting,  and  their  parents 
for  educating  them.  Then  the  bridegroom  presents  his 
bride  to  the  members  of  his  family,  and  to  those  of  his 
friends  who  are  present. 

During  the  ceremony  the  music  continues  playing,  and 
also  during  the  dinner  which  succeeds  it. 

The  simplicity  of  these  ceremonies  is  worthy  of  remark. 
They  are  neither  religious  nor  civil.  No  priest  or  func- 
tionary is  present;  there  is  neither  consecration  nor  legal 
act.  The  only  witnesses  of  the  marriage  are  God,  the  family^ 
and  the  friends.  After  dinner  the  doors  of  the  house  remain 
open  all  the  evening,  and  all  the  neighbors  and  even  the 
passengers  in  the  street  have  the  right  to  enter  the  house 
and  see  the  bride,  who  stands  in  the  drawing-room,  sepa- 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


181 


rated  from  the  public  by  a table,  upon  which  are  placed  two 
lighted  candles. 

On  the  morrow  it  is  the  bride’s  turn  to  take  her  husband 
to  visit  her  own  family,  where  the  same  ceremonies  are 
performed. 

The  foregoing  is  a general  view  of  the  marriage  cere- 
mony. It  only  varies  in  rich  families  with  respect  to  the 
splendor  of  details,  and  it  may  easily  be  imagined  with  what 
magnificence  such  an  outline  may  be  filled  in. 

The  marriages  I have  seen  in  high  life  in  Paris  are  about 
the  least  lively  proceedings  imaginable.  Nobody  goes  to  the 
civil  marriage,  and  those  who  tolerate  the  religious  conse- 
cration are  in  a hurry  to  leave  the  church  afterwards.  The 
pair  have  scarcely  returned  before  they  change  their  dress 
and  are  off  to  the  railway  station.  Really,  it  might  be  an 
improvement  to  have  the  mayor  and  clergyman  in  a sleeping 
car,  and  get  the  marriage  over  quickly  before  the  train 
starts.  The  guests  could  assemble  on  the  platform,  and 
the  locomotives  might  be  requested  to  execute  a chorus  to 
work  upon  the  bride’s  feelings.  I expect  this  is  what  it  will 
come  to  by  and  by. 

I am  simple  enough  to  believe  in  the  influence  of  cere- 
monies; they  induce  respect  for  the  act  accomplished.  In 
spite  of  yourself,  you  feel  the  grandeur  of  something  you 
are  unable  to  define,  but  which  nevertheless  exists.  Cere- 
monies make  us  conscious  of  a mystery,  and  by  their  aid  we 
rise  superior  to  our  petty  weaknesses.  The  less  imposing  the 
ceremony,  the  less  important  appears  the  act.  For  this  rea- 
son marriage  in  Europe  has  lost  its  charm. 

Singular  to  state,  the  honors  rendered  to  the  dead  re- 
main the  same ; public  ceremony  is  respected,  and  mourning 
is  not  a subject  for  discussion.  The  reason  is,  that  the 
ceremonies  of  the  living  are  easy  to  ridicule ; but  in  presence 


182 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


of  death  custom  is  left  alone,  and  even  the  most  practical 
refrain  from  interfering  with  the  ceremony  of  grief. 

The  cultivation  of  the  serious  has  in  modern  civilization 
substituted  itself  for  every  other  cult.  Formerly  there  were 
customs  of  a fascinating  description,  as  I have  learned  from 
ancient  books ; people  then  lived  in  more  direct  communica- 
tion with  Nature.  I have  noticed  in  these  ancient  descrip- 
tions many  traits  of  resemblance  to  our  present  customs, 
which  lead  me  to  believe  that  change  is  not  progress — or  at 
least  rarely  so.  When  I examine  the  handsome  dresses  of 
the  old  times — the  plumed  hats  and  embroidered  mantles — I 
am  compelled  to  acknowledge  how  ugly  are  the  black  tubes 
used  as  headgear,  and  those  curious  black  coats  that  every- 
body wears,  especially  the  servants. 

I would  wager  that  if  a complete  history  of  costumes 
and  customs  were  written,  their  changes  would  be  found  to 
correspond  with  some  event  of  a serious  nature.  Every  local 
custom  maintained  love  of  the  natal  soil ; costume  maintained 
rank.  Nowadays  in  the  West  everybody  looks  like  every- 
body else,  and  nobody  cares  much  for  anything.  If  this  is 
the  desired  progress,  it  is  complete,  and  I admire  it  without 
envy. 

DIVORCE. 

Divorce  exists  in  China  in  a certain  way.  I have  said  that 
marriage  created  an  indissoluble  bond  in  the  eyes  of  thg 
family;  the  legislator  alone  has  introduced  an  exceptional 
disposition,  and  has  only  introduced  it  in  the  interest  of  the 
family  itself.  In  truth,  divorce  is  a legal  necessity. 

The  reader  need  not  here  expect  to  find  an  argument  for 
or  against  the  law  of  divorce.  I am  no  competitor  with  either 
Alexandre  Dumas  fils  or  M.  Naquet.  I state  what  we  think 
of  divorce  in  China,  and  am  unable  to  say  what  we  should 
think  of  it  if  the  family  were  organized  in  China  as  it  is 
among  Western  nations. 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


183 


Laws  are  made  for  societies  according  to  their  trans- 
formations; laws  are  the  monuments  of  evolutions — I had 
almost  said  revolutions. 

All  that  I know  is  that  in  the  year  253  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  the  epoch  at  which  our  code  was  promulgated, 
divorce  already  existed  in  China.  When  was  it  first  made 
legal?  The  answer  is  obscure,  but  Voltaire  very  pithily 
states : ‘‘Divorce  originated  about  the  same  period  as  mar- 
riage; I believe  marriage  is  a few  weeks  more  ancient.’’ 
Wit  finds  a solution  for  every  problem. 

Whatever  may  be  the  exact  age  of  divorce,  it  has  not 
been  lightly  instituted,  and  it  has  accompaniments  in  the 
code  making  it  a serious  matter.  The  law  has  foreseen 
certain  circumstances  unnecessary  to  specify,  and  which  are 
within  the  knowledge  of  all  married  people.  Upon  this  head 
the  East  and  West  are  perfectly  agreed.  But  we  have  some- 
thing original  also.  We  have  two  grounds  for  divorce  un- 
known in  Europe:  they  consist  in  disobedience  amounting 
to  insult  towards  the  parents  of  either  of  the  married  couple, 
and  in  sterility  proved  at  a certain  age  fixed  by  the  law. 

These  principles  will  appear  strange,  no  doubt ; but,  re- 
calling the  organization  of  the  family  as  I have  already  de- 
scribed it,  the  reason  for  these  two  grounds  of  divorce  may 
be  understood.  They  will  confirm  the  statement  I have 
made  as  to  the  important  position  of  the  family  in  the  social 
edifice  of  China. 

All  these  observations  are  but  preliminary.  The  only 
interesting  question  with  regard  to  divorce  is  whether  it  is 
practiced.  Every  one  I have  met,  who  has  questioned  me 
upon  our  customs,  has  always  asked : “Do  they  divorce  much 
in  China?”  The  question  surprised  me  at  first,  but  on  re- 
flection I comprehended  that  it  was  in  fact  the  only  impor- 
tant point.  When  for  the  first  time  the  toothache  compels 
you  to  go  to  a dentist,  you  ask  your  friends  “if  it  hurts 


184 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


much/’  The  unknown  disquiets  you.  At  the  present  time 
there  is  a similar  feeling  in  France  with  regard  to  divorce: 
people  are  nervous,  and  so  they  ask,  '^Do  they  divorce  much 
in  your  country?”  Be  of  good  cheer,  simple  and  timorous 
souls ! 

Divorce  is  not  so  dangerous  as  it  looks.  The  fear  of  it 
makes  it  terrible,  like  the  children’s  bogey.  To  render  it 
harmless  it  suffices  to  know  that  it  is  a remedy  worse  than 
the  disease.  This  is  its  true  definition  in  China.  The  possi- 
bility that  it  may  be  useful  excuses  its  existence ; but  it  has 
the  essential  taint  of  a ‘^necessary  evil,”  because  it  is  a testi- 
mony of  human  imperfection,  and  breaks  the  charm  of  mar- 
riage— that  union  projected  and  contracted  by  the  family 
for  the  family. 

The  only  serious  ground  of  divorce,  except  that  of  adul- 
tery, which  is  punished  by  the  husband  despotically,  con- 
sists in  sterility,  seeing  that  the  end  of  marriage  is  to  give 
children  to  the  family,  to  honor  their  parents  and  continue 
the  ancestral  cult.  Well,  then,  even  when  sterility  of  the 
wife  is  proven  at  the  legal  age,  even  in  that  case  the  hus- 
band does  not  use  his  legal  privilege. 

Divorce  is  a violent  rupture;  and  to  coldly  determine 
upon  it,  a man  must  be  able  to  forget  the  woman  he  has 
loved,  in  spite  of  her  sterility.  Can  she  be  made  responsible 
for  a misfortune  from  which  she  suffers  as  much  as  her  hus- 
band ? Of  course  not,  and  so  the  pair  remain  united.  That 
is  the  result  of  experience.  It  is  quite  certain  a man  will 
reflect  maturely  before  changing  his  life;  he  will  ask  him- 
self whether,  if  he  takes  another  legitimate  wife,  he  will 
have  children ; perhaps  after  all  it  is  a risk.  * * * Why,  then, 
sadden  existence  by  such  doubtful  experiments?  And  so 
they  remain  united,  and  adopt  a child  from  among  the  chil- 
dren of  the  family,  conformably  to  the  law  of  adoption.  That 


CHINESE  WOMEN 

is  a means  frequently  employed  to  cure  the  misfortune  of 
sterility,  especially  when  the  family  is  rich. 

If  I were  to  multiply  examples  I should  arrive  at  the 
same  conclusion,  that  divorce,  authorized  by  the  law,  is 
condemned  by  custom.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact.  Whatever 
may  be  said  to  the  contrary,  divorce  is  not  a law  of  nature ; 
it  is  the  consequence  of  a certain  social  condition ; and  in  fact, 
legal  or  illegal,  does  it  not  exist  everywhere  in  this  country  ? 
What  are  separations  but  a kind  of  divorce  ? Only  I am  in- 
clined to  think  that  in  the  countries  where  divorce  does  not 
legally  exist,  there  would,  if  it  did  exist,  be  fewer  divorces 
than  there  are  actually  separations.  To  be  divorced!  sepa- 
rated if  you  like,  but  divorced ! they  would  think  twice,  as  we 
do,  before  coming  to  that  extremity ; half-measures  are  not 
sufficient  to  cause  serious  reflection.  How  many  couples 
there  are  who  separate,  and  who  under  the  same  circum- 
stances would  not  divorce!  But  I find  I am  pleading  the 
cause  of  divorce,  for  which  I ask  pardon,  because  the  re- 
spective situations  of  Western  society  and  ours  are  absolutely 
different.  With  us  a woman  marries  without  dowry.  The 
sublime  phrase  of  Harpagon — ''without  dowry’’ — would  be 
devoid  of  meaning  in  China.  Money  and  woman  have  no 
connection  with  each  other;  women  do  not  inherit.  I cer- 
tainly have  no  desire  to  slander  the  fair  sex ; but  that  is  one 
of  the  most  fortunate  arrangements  of  China,  and  one  of  the 
shrewdest.  Marriage  for  money  has  no  existence. 

I have  sometimes  tried  to  explain  to  my  fellow-country- 
men what  a marriage  for  money  was,  and  they  have  always 
understood  that  it  was  a stroke  of  business,  a bargain.  With 
us  the  parents  calculate  long  beforehand  the  honorable  testi- 
monials of  the  family  in  which  they  seek  a wife  for  their 
son,  and  seek  information  as  to  the  virtues  of  the  young 
girl.  In  the  West  they  count  up  the  amount  of  the  dowry, 
and  calculate  the  expectations — that  is,  of  deaths  of  rela- 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


tions ; and  when  all  is  exactly  counted  and  added  up,  and  a 
round  sum  is  arrived  at,  the  marriage  is  arranged — bon 
parti! 

Is  this  not  the  fact?  Why  would  Moliere’s  sans  dot  be 
sublime  if  it  were  not  the  case? 

Marriages  for  money  are  the  greatest  insult  that  can  be 
offered  to  women.  They,  however,  do  not  appear  to  resent 
it,  for  while  they  allow  themselves  to  be  bought,  they  often 
have  even  the  courage  to  sell  themselves. 

I confess,  divorce  seems  more  necessary  in  such  a social 
condition  as  this.  Marriage  is  such  a slender  bond!  Ah! 
our  customs  are  more  solid,  more  dignified;  and  I cannot^ 
with  the  best  will  in  the  world,  admire  this  mixture  of  solemn 
traditions  and  of  petty  trivialties,  resembling  a performance 
of  comic  operetta.  That,  however,  is  not  my  business. 

The  united  couple  is  high  in  honor  in  China.  An  old 
song  in  the  ‘‘Book  of  Verses’’  celebrates  a united  couple  in  a 
simple  ode,  of  which  the  following  is  a translation : 

“ ‘The  cock  has  crowed !’  says  the  wife. 

The  man  replies : ‘It  is  still  dark. 

It  is  not  yet  day.’ 

“ ‘Rise  and  look  at  the  heavens ! 

Already  the  morning  star  appears ; 

’Tis  time  to  depart.  Remember  thou 
To  bring  down  with  thine  arrows 
The  wild  goose  and  duck. 

“ ‘Thou  hast  shot  thy  arrows  with  good  aim. 

Let  us  drink  a little  wine. 

And  pass  our  life  together ; 

Let  our  music  be  in  harmony. 

That  no  discord 
May  offend  our  ears !’  ” 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


187 


Such  is  the  song  of  a pair  who  are  neither  Romeo  nor 
Juliet,  although  the  sentiment  is  worthy  of  them.  She  has 
no  other  ambition  than  to  inculcate  duties,  and  not  to  ideah 
ize  a passion.  And  this  hunter — do  not  suppose  he  is  some 
poor  mountaineer  unworthy  of  your  interest,  obliged  to 
hunt  to  sustain  his  wretched  existence.  It  is  a man  of 
opulence,  for  the  ode  terminates  thus: 

‘‘Offer  precious  stones 

To  thy  friends  who  come  to  visit  thee; 

They  will  take  them  away 
Hanging  at  their  girdles.’^ 

I have  said  that  divorce  was  condemned  by  custom.  It 
is  above  all  in  aristocratic  society  that  it  is  despised.  Rather 
than  give  to  publicity  the  secrets  of  private  life,  when  the 
causes  of  rupture  are  not  extremely  grave,  they  prefer  the 
system  of  mutual  concessions. 

Moreover,  the  woman  is  from  motives  of  vanity  inter- 
ested in  preserving  peace,  and  not  desiring  a divorce,  for 
she  possesses  nothing  except  the  honors  attaching  to  her 
rank  as  wife. 

Marriage  gives  a woman  all  the  privileges  enjoyed  by 
the  husband,  even  that  of  wearing  the  uniform  of  his  rank. 
Under  these  conditions  divorce  would  be  the  greatest  folly ; 
and  if  the  wife  understands  this,  the  marriage  will  remain 
unbroken. 

Although  these  arrangements  are  Chinese,  they  are  not 
on  that  account  less  able.  It  is  almost  impossible  in  our 
country  to  say,  Cherchez  la  femme.  That  is  a Western  idea. 

Women,  as  I will  show  in  another  chapter,  are  as  happy 
in  China  as  in  Europe ; but  not  having  the  idea  of  person- 
ality too  highly  developed,  they  are  not  inclined  to  scandal 
or  intrigue. 


188 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Our  aristocratic  families  are  above  everything  aristo- 
cratic. They  have  that  pride  of  rank  which  maintains 
decorous  living,  and  occasions  to  laugh  at  their  expense 
would  be  sought  in  vain.  In  the  West  the  expression  has 
been  used : “I  know  no  place  where  so  many  things  happen 
as  in  the  monde’’  That  is  true  enough.  Everything  hap- 
pens there.  This  kind  of  monde  is  to  be  found  everywhere ; 
but  I have  observed  that  in  the  West  it  is  ridiculous,  which 
in  China  is  not  the  case. 

Among  the  working  classes  divorce  occurs  very  rarely. 
There  every  member  of  the  family  works  to  earn  the  daily 
bread,  and  disputes  are  a waste  of  time.  The  father,  mother, 
and  children  go  to  the  fields  together  as  in  ancient  times. 
If  they  quarrel,  as  no  doubt  they  do  sometimes,  they  soon 
make  it  up  again.  After  rain  fine  weather!  If  it  happens 
that  the  reasons  of  the  dispute  become  grave — when,  for 
instance  the  husband  squanders  the  property  of  the  com- 
munity, and  the  wife  goes  to  the  magistrate  to  obtain  a 
divorce,  that  officer  usually  refrains  from  pronouncing  a 
final  decision.  He  is  the  judge,  and  in  the  exercise  of  his 
discretion  he  waits  for  his  admonitions  to  produce  a good 
effect  upon  the , culprit’s  mind.  His  prudence  is  nearly, 
always  clear-sighted.  Finally,  there  is  another  consideration 
to  be  weighed  by  a wife  determined  to  seek  a divorce.  This 
is  the  thought  of  her  children,  and  the  hopes  she  rests  upon 
their  future.  In  China  it  is  the  mother  who  brings  up  the 
children ; and  we  shall  never  be  civilized  enough  to  believe 
there  can  be  a more  perfect  education.  The  mother  transfers 
her  ambition  to  the  hearts  of  her  children.  By  them  she 
may  bcome  noble  and  honored ; and  when  such  a feeling  as 
this  resides  in  a woman’s  heart  it  is  a force.  In  China  we 
have  made  woman  a being  always  hoping.  It  is  this  hope 
she  opposes  like  a solid  wall  to  the  troubles  that  besiege  her 
when  her  husband  makes  her  too  wretched.  She  is  patient 


CHINESE  WOMEN 


1 


in  order  that  her  children  may  by-and-by  recompense  her, 

and  avenge  her  of  her  husband’s  neglect. 

I could  not  terminate  this  study  without  a word  upon 
adultery,  which  European  law  does  not  punish  as  a crime. 

With  us  it  is  admitted  that  the  husband  alone  has  the 
right  to  kill  his  wife  when  he  finds  her  in  Hagrcante  delicto. 
That  settles  the  question  of  divorce. 

So  many  absurdities,  however,  have  been  written  in 
Europe  with  regard  to  punishments  supposed  to  be  inflicted 
in  China  on  culpable  wives,  that  I cannot  refrain  from  quot- 
ing one  of  them.  Alexandre  Dumas  fils  says  in  his  work, 
''La  Question  du  Divorce,”  p.  85 : "In  Tonquin  and  China 
a woman  taken  in  adultery  is  awarded  a punishment  that 
Philyra,  the  mother  of  the  centaur  Chiron,  had  doubtless 
found  very  agreeable.  True,  h was  a god  who  had  assumed 
the  form  of  a horse  for  her  sake.  After  this  punishment, 
an  elephant  trained  to  these  executions  seizes  the  woman 
with  his  trunk,  raises  her  in  the  air,  lets  her  fall,  and  crushes 
her  under  his  feet.”  I might  be  satisfied  with  the  text  as 
its  own  refutation.  The  absurd  surpasses  the  probable.  But 
this  example  shows  the  system  adopted  to  depict  our  manners 
and  customs.  The  fact  is,  there  are  fewer  elephants  in  China 
than  in  France.  There  are  perhaps  two  or  three  at  Pekin 
shown  as  curiosities,  as  animals  are  in  menageries.  But  it 
is  the  fashion  to  describe  China  as  the  stronghold  of  bar- 
barism. If  there  is  in  any  part  of  the  world  some  cruel, 
inhuman  custom — what ! you  cannot  guess  where ! In  China, 
of  course ! 

These  extravagances  of  the  imagination  should  be  re- 
vised and  either  proved  or  retracted,  were  there  no  other 
motive  than  the  abstract  love  of  truth. 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


CHAPTER  IX. 

CHINESE  RELIGION  AND  PHILOSOPHY  FROM  A CHINESE  POINT 

OF  VIEW. 

Religions  have  existed  from  all  time.  Primitively  they 
constituted  the  mysterious  bond  uniting  the  creature  to  the 
Creator,  and  their  symbols  represented  adoration  and  grati- 
tude. Under  those  so  divergent  forms  expressing  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  human  soul  with  the  universal  Spirit,  we  always 
find  the  idea  of  the  supernatural  joined  to  the  most  curious 
practices.  In  his  soaring  towards  God,  man’s  imperfect 
nature  causes  frequent  falls.  But  the  initiatory  flight  is  the 
highest.  Religions  are  less  complicated  as  we  ascend  the 
stream  of  Time;  they  seem  to  simplify  thmselves  and  tend 
towards  that  unity  which  is  our  ideal  of  harmony  and  beauty. 
It  seems  as  if  at  first  they  must  have  been  worthy  of  the 
Deity.  But  that  condition  diminishes  as  the  world  grows 
older,  and  at  length  casts  only  feeble  rays  athwart  the  length- 
ening shadows  upon  the  pathway  of  humanity,  as  on  the 
evening  of  a fine  summer’s  day.  I have  felt  that  impression 
in  studying  our  old  books,  and  reading  the  admirable  maxims 
of  our  sages.  I have  felt  it  also  while  seeking  to  decipher 
the  secret  of  our  destiny  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  West. 
It  appeared  to  me  that  the  greatest  intensity  of  the  glorious 
light  had  died  away,  and  that  we  now  received  only  the  last 
pale  reflections.  Everywhere  I see  the  radiance  of  a truth 
whose  beauty  is  the  same,  and  I seem  to  hear  an  immense 
choir  in  which  all  the  voices  of  heaven  and  earth  join  har- 


RELIGION  AND  PHILOSOPHY 

moniously;  and  when,  awaking  from  the  enchantment  of 
this  dream,  I listen  to  the  tumultuous  clamors  of  a world 
become  a chaos  of  beliefs,  my  spirit  is  full  of  amazement,  and 
I could  doubt  that  truth  existed,  but  that  conscience  forces 
me  to  believe  in  spite  of  myself.  We  have  no  occasion  to 
envy  the  West  its  religious  beliefs,  although  we  do  not  look 
at  them  from  the  same  standpoint.  Moreover,  I will  not 
discuss  the  merits  of  religions.  Man  is  so  small  seen  from 
on  high  that  it  matters  little  in  what  manner  he  honors  God. 
God  understands  all  languages,  and  especially  that  which  is 
expressed  in  silence  by  the  movements  of  the  spirit.  We 
also  have  those  who  pray  with  the  spirit,  and  those  who 
pray  with  the  lips.  They  have  nothing  in  common.  We 
have  the  ideal  religion  which  compels  the  spirit  to  enter  into 
itself,  and  we  have  the  terrestrial  religion  expressed  by 
movements  of  the  arms  and  legs.  In  a word,  we  know  what 
sincerity  is,  and  what  hypocrisy. 

Religions  are  at  the  same  level  as  intelligence.  We  have 
a religion  of  the  literary  class  which  corresponds  to  the 
degree  of  culture  of  the  most  enlightened  body  in  the  empire. 
This  is  the  religion  of  Confucius,  or  rather  his  philosophy; 
for  his  doctrine  is  that  of  the  founder  of  a school  who  has 
enunciated  moral  maxims,  but  has  not  meddled  with  specu- 
lative theories  upon  the  destinies  of  man  and  the  nature  of 
the  divinity. 

Confucius  lived  in  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  his  memory  is  in  such  veneration  that  there  is  no 
town  in  China  without  a temple  erected  in  his  honor.  His 
philosophical  system  consists  essentially  in  the  education  of 
the  human  heart;  and  the  word  ''education’’  is  truly  that 
which  best  expresses  the  aim  of  his  teaching.  To  raise  from 
earth  the  inert  man  abased  by  the  bad  use  of  his  faculties ; to 
open  his  eyes  to  the  azure  splendor  of  the  illimitable  uni- 
verse; to  accustom  him  by  degrees  to  put  ofiE  his  nullity,  and 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

to  feel  himself  a spirit,  a being,  thinking,  willing  and  know- 
ing. To  think,  will,  and  know  are  the  three  steps  of  that 
education  which  begins  with  awakening  and  ends  with 
science,  and  whose  text-book  contains  the  finest  maxims  that 
ever  philosopher  wrote  upon  humanity. 

We  must  not  imagine,  however,  that  the  doctrine  of 
Confucius  is  confined  to  maxims  or  to  advice,  without  point- 
ing out  a precise  method.  There  is  a most  exact  method  in 
that  doctrine,  and  it  is  really  a practical  course  of  moral 
education.  I will  try  to  explain  the  plan  of  it. 

The  principle  upon  which  the  system  rests  is  to  main- 
tain the  reason  within  fixed  limits.  Confucius  said  the 
human  heart  is  like  a galloping  horse,  which  ‘^heeds  neither 
rein  nor  voice’^ ; or  like  a torrent  descending  the  rapid  slopes 
of  a mountain ; or  like  a fire  breaking  out.  These  are  violent 
forces,  which  we  must  hope  to  keep  within  bounds,  while 
maintaining  their  power  without  allowing  them  to  develop. 

He  said  that  the  human  heart  has  an  invariable  ideal — 
Justice  and  Wisdom;  and  that  the  five  senses  are  so  many 
powers  of  seduction  turning  it  away  from  that  ideal.  The 
means  that  Confucius  advises  his  adepts  to  use  is  to  arm 
themselves  beforehand  against  the  danger  of  these  seduc- 
tions, and  the  invincible  weapon  he  gives  them  is  Respect. 

Respect  is  the  general  sentiment  which  extends  to  every 
action  of  life.  The  first  cause  of  corruption  is  negligence ; 
no  quantity  is  so  small  as  not  to  be  taken  into  account  by 
Reason. 

Negligence  puts  us  in  the  power  of  habit,  which  has 
been  cynically  called  a second  Nature — as  if  Nature  were 
not  one  and  the  same ! It  is  Respect  extended  to  all  the 
acts  of  life,  above  all  the  most  insignificant,  which  turns 
away  unhealthy  influences  and  gradually  performs  the 
patient  work  of  education. 

Confucius  teaches  us  to  observe  that  the  five  senses,  as 


RELIGION  AND  PHILOSOPHY  193 


they  are  defined,  constitute  faculties,  but  not  endowments. 
Man,  however,  has  received  endowments  from  Nature,  and 
he  enumerates  them.  They  are ; a respectful  physiognomy, 
soft  speech,  acute  hearing,  piercing  sight,  passionless  reflec- 
tion. These  particular  states  of  our  faculties  should  be 
unremittingly  developed. 

The  basis,  therefore,  of  the  philosophic  system  of  Con- 
fucius is  Respect,  as  Charity  is  the  basis  of  the  evangelical 
doctrine.  Respect  addresses  itself  to  actions;  Charity  to 
individuals — or,  to  speak  more  precisely,  to  ‘‘our  neighbor.’’ 

I imagine — it  is  a caprice  of  imagination — that  Con- 
fucius had  a glimpse  of  that  Charity  which  creates  a “neigh- 
bor.” But  our  moralist  dared  not  aim  at  such  perfection; 
it  required  a divine  presumption  to  believe  in  the  existence 
of  a “neighbor.”  He  preferred  leaving  the  initiative  of 
Charity  to  man;  and  if  he  gives  him  the  key  to  arrive  at 
human  perfection,  he  does  not  despair  of  humanity  receiving 
some  benefit  from  it. 

I have  no  pretension  to  give  religious  lessons,  still  less 
to  convert,  inasmuch  as  Confucius  leaves  everyone  free  to 
worship  God  as  he  pleases.  I will,  however,  remark  that 
this  system,  which  consists  in  raising  the  heart  of  man, 
in  order  to  direct  all  his  thoughts  to  God,  as  a sort  of 
consequence  of  moral  good,  lacks  neither  grandeur  nor  logic. 
It  seems  right  that  the  human  being  should  adorn  himself 
with  all  the  splendors  of  virtue  to  communicate  with  the 
Divine  Being;  and  to  present  adoration  as  an  aim  is  an 
elevated,  sublime  idea,  which  satisfies  the  mind  and  cap- 
tivates the  reason. 

I shall  perhaps  be  accused  of  embellishing  the  subject, 
and  only  showing  the  beauty  of  theories.  My  reader  knows 
better  than  I that  books  have  magnificent  bindings,  and  are 
very  seldom  opened — that  precepts  do  not  make  everybody 
virtuous,  and  that  to  know  them,  and  apply  them,  are  dif- 


194 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


ferent  operations.  I have  heard  it  said  that  our  morality 
is  like  the  dead  languages  that  are  no  longer  spoken — it 
has  almost  been  called  archaeological;  but  I am  acquainted 
with  other  moralities  which  have  had  the  same  destiny ; and 
the  maxims  of  Equality  and  Fraternity — I might  even  say 
of  Liberty — appear  to  me  to  give  more  work  to  the  speech- 
makers  than  to  practical  disciples.  Criticism  of  this  kind 
is  not  difficult : by  turns  the  individuals  composing  the  great 
tribe  of  man  love  to  discuss  the  enormous  motes  in  their 
neighbors’  eyes,  and  forget  the  imperceptible  beam  in  their 
own.  These  are  inconsistencies  which  throw  into  all  the 
more  relief  the  maxims  of  Confucius : for  with  a little  more 
respect  and  less  negligence  life  would  be  more  dignified  and 
more  estimable. 

I return  to  the  practical  maxims.  Confucius  has  a num- 
ber of  small  means  to  overcome  great  errors:  it  is  like 
homoeopathy  applied  to  the  diseases  of  the  mind.  He  for- 
bids, to  cite  one  of  these  means,  fixed  ideas- — that  is,  preju- 
dice. He  says  all  men  are  the  same,  the  ancient  and  the 
modern;  and  the  good  of  the  one  is  the  same  as  the  good 
of  the  other:  they  do  not  differ.  To  imitate  the  ancients 
in  the  wisdom  of  their  conduct,  and  to  endeavor  to  know 
them,  are  the  best  means  to  know  one’s  self. 

In  a word,  he  tries  to  create  a general  point  of  view, 
uniting  all  consciences.  No  one  will  escape  its  magnetism ; 
and  without  reserve,  without  the  conception  of  another  ideal, 
every  spirit  will  turn  towards  the  sun  of  the  moral  world 
to  receive  its  beneficial  light. 

He  says  likewise: 

‘‘Enter  the  secret  recesses  of  Nature,  and  study  good 
and  evil:  you  will  be  filled  with  the  feeling  of  Nature  her- 
self; and  in  spite  of  the  vast  dimensions  of  the  universe, 
and  the  distances  separating  social  situations,  you  will  con- 


RELIGION  AND  PHILOSOPHY  195 


ceive  in  your  inmost  soul  the  principle  of  the  equality  of 
creatures. 

''If  you  maintain  conscience,  you  will  restrict  desire,  and 
arrive  at  the  ideal  of  terrestrial  life,  which  is  tranquility  of 
spirit. 

"Tranquility  is  a kind  of  vigilant  attention.  It  is  when 
tranquility  is  perfect  that  the  human  faculties  display  all 
their  resources,  because  they  are  enlightened  by  reason  and 
sustained  by  knowledge.’’ 

But  I must  stop  short;  it  is  unnecessary  to  further  de- 
velop this  magnificent  doctrine,  which  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  splendid  tributes  made  by  man  to  his  Creator. 

The  ancient  worship  sanctioned  by  Confucius  admitted 
neither  images  nor  priests,  but  merely  certain  ceremonies 
forming  the  rules  of  a cultus.  These  ceremonies  are  but 
little  noticed  by  minds  occupied  by  the  principles. 

Religious  unity  does  not  exist  in  China.  Where  does 
it  exist  ? Unity  is  a state  of  perfection  nowhere  to  be  found. 
But  if  China  has  several  leading  religions,  I hasten  to  state 
she  has  but  three.  That  is  moderate  enough. 

Besides  the  religion  of  Confucius,  there  is  that  of  Lao- 
Tse,  which  is  now  only  practiced  by  the  lower  class,  and 
admits  of  metempsychosis;  and  the  religion  of  Fo,  or  Bud- 
dhism, a doctrine  appertaining  to  metaphysics,  in  which 
admirable  points  of  view  are  to  be  found. 

According  to  Buddhism  the  material  world  is  an  illusion ; 
man  should  endeavor  to  isolate  himself  in  the  midst  of  Na- 
ture— to  abstract  himself.  It  is  the  doctrine  of  contempla- 
tion in  God — that  is  to  say,  in  the  immaterial  essence.  The 
aim  of  this  ideal  life  is  to  produce  ecstasy ; then  the  divine 
principle  takes  possession  of  the  soul,  penetrates  it,  and 
death  consummates  the  mystic  union.  Such  is  the  abstract 
principle  of  that  religion  which  h^s  its  temples,  altars,  and 


19G 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


a pompous  ritual.  I may  add  that  the  Buddhist  monks, 
who  live  in  vast  monasteries,  possess  great  riches. 

In  China,  as  in  all  other  countries,  there  exist  sincere 
believers  and  a great  number  of  the  indifferent. 

Indifference  is  a sort  of  negligence  attaching  to  spiritual 
things ; it  is  a disease  which  receives  no  medical  treatment. 
Wherever  there  are  men  there  will  be  some  who  are  indif- 
ferent. Religious  hatred,  however,  has  no  place  among  our 
national  customs;  to  me  it  is  a source  of  arriazement.  I 
can  understand  that  one  may  hate — a person,  for  instance; 
but  a religious  idea — a religion! 

As  to  atheism,  it  has  been  called  a product  of  modern 
civilization.  We  are  not  yet  sufficiently  civilized  to  have 
no  belief. 


CHAPTER  X. 

FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE. 

No  general  statement  of  the  revenue  and  expenditure 
of  China  is  made  public,  and  such  estimates  as  have  been 
formed  by  Europeans  are  founded  on  financial  reports  of 
provincial  governors  published  in  the  Pekin  Gazette.  Ex- 
cept the  foreign  maritime  and  a few  native  customs,  the 
entire  revenue  is  collected  by  provincial  agents.  The  Board 
of  Revenue  at  Peking  issues  annually  to  each  of  the  pro- 
vincial governors  a statement  of  the  amount  required  from 
his  province  for  the  following  year,  and  when  to  this  amount 
is  added  the  sum  necessary  for  local  administration,  civil 
and  military,  the  revenue  to  be  provided  by  each  collector 
is  ascertained.  The  amount  actually  levied,  however,  great- 
ly exceeds  this,  and  the  surplus,  which  may  amount  to  50 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE 


197 


or  70  per  cent  of  the  total,  disappears  in  the  form  of  costs, 
or  in  presents  to  official  superiors,  or  remains  in  the  hands 
of  the  collectors.  The  following  estimate,  taken  from  a 
report  by  Consul  Jamieson  of  Shanghai,  is  based  on  figures 
for  the  three  years  preceding  the  Japanese  war,  and  shov/s 
the  sums  accounted  for  by  the  provincial  authorities : — 

Amount. 

Sources  of  Revenue — Taels.* 

Land  tax,  silver 25,088,000 

Land  tax,  grain 6,562,000 

Salt  duty  and  likin 13,659,000 

Likin  on  merchandise 12,952,000 

Foreign  maritime  customs  (1893) 21,989,000 

Native  custom-houses 1,000,000 

Duty  and  likin  no  native  opium 2,229,000 

Miscellaneous  duties 5,55o,oo<) 


Total 88,979,000 

Branches  of  Expenditure — Amount. 

Remittances:  Taels. 

Metropolitan  administration,  Manchu  garrisons  and  the 

Imperial  Household 19,478,000 

Board  of  Admiralty  (Pei-yang  squadron)  5,000,000 

Southern  naval  squadrons 5,000,000 

Forts,  guns  and  coast  defense 8,000,000 

Defense  of  Manchuria 1,848,000 

Kansuh  and  Central  Asia 4,800,000 

Aids  to  Yunnan  and  Kweichow 1,655,000 

Interest  and  repayment  of  foreign  loans 2,500,000 

Railway  construction 500,000 

Public  works,  river  embankments,  sea  wall,  etc 1,500,000 

Customs  administration,  including  maintenance  of  light- 
houses, beacons  and  revenue  cruisers 2,478,000 

Administration  of  18  provinces,  including  cost  of  troops  36,220,000 

Total 88,979,000 


*Exchange  value  at  present  about  70c. 


198 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


The  land  tax  varies  in  different  provinces  from  20c 
or  25c  to  $1.50  or  more  per  acre.  The  rate  of  incidence 
is  theoretically  fixed,  but  under  other  names  additional 
taxes  are  imposed  on  land.  Salt  is  a government  monopoly, 
all  producers  being  required  to  sell  to  government  agents, 
who,  at  a price  which  covers  the  duty,  re-sell  to  merchants 
provided  with  ‘'salt  warrants.’’  Likin  is  a tax  imposed  on 
merchandise  in  course  of  transportation,  payable  at  ap- 
pointed barriers ; with  it  is  now  united  a producers’  tax. 

The  collection  of  the  revenue  on  the  Chinese  foreign 
trade  and  the  administration  of  the  lights  on  the  coast  of 
China  are  under  the  management  of  the  Imperial  Cus- 
toms Department,  the  head  of  which  is  a foreigner  (Brit- 
ish*), under  whom  is  a large  staff  of  European,  American, 
and  Chinese  subordinates,  the  department  being  organized 
somewhat  similarly  to  the  English  Civil  Service.  It  has 
an  agency  in  London. 

The  receipts  amounted  to  7,872,257  haikwan  taels,  or 
$11,430,445.68  (ex.  $1.44),  in  1864,  and,  gradually  increas- 
ing have  risen  to  22,503,397  haikwan  taels  (including 
3,983,182  taels,  opium  likin),  or  $15,713,466.56  (ex.  70c.), 
in  1898. 

The  supervision  and  collection  of  the  general  likin  of  the 
ports  of  Su-Chow  and  Kiu-Kiang,  and  of  the  districts  of 
Shanghai  and  East  Chi-Kiang,  and  of  the  salt  likin  of 
Ichang,  the  Hupeh  district,  and  the  Anhui  district,  were 
entrusted  on  March  2,  1898,  to  the  Inspector-General  of 
the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs  (see  below).  The  total 
revenue  to  be  derived  therefrom  was  estimated  at  5,000,000 
haikwan  taels.  The  first  year  of  nominal  control  was  spent 
mainly  in  preliminary  observation,  and  steps  are  being 
taken  towards  a reform  of  Chinese  abuses  in  this  matter. 

^This  officer  has  long  been  Sir  Robert  Hart,  a man  greatly 
respected  by  all  the  Chinese. 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE 


199 


The  existing  debt  of  China  has  arisen  almost  entirely 
out  of  the  recent  war  with  Japan.  In  1887  there  was  con- 
tracted a German  loan  of  5,000,000  marks  in  gold  at  5^ 
per  cent.  In  1894  a foreign  silver  loan  of  £1,635,000  was 
raised  at  7 per  cent,  and  in  February,  1895,  a gold  loan  of 
£3,000,000,  both  on  the  security  of  the  customs  revenue, 
while  other  advances,  on  the  same  security,  amounting  to 
over  £2,000,000,  were  obtained  from  local  banks  and  foreign 
syndicates.  Internal  loans  were  also  obtained  amounting  to 
nearly  $24,000,000.  The  war  indemnity  to  be  paid  to  Japan 
amounted  to  200,000,000  kuping,  or  Imperial  Treasury, 
taels,  and  the  compensation  for  the  retrocession  for  the 
Liao-tung  peninsula  to  30,000,000  taels.  Consequently,  in 
1895,  another  foreign  loan  was  raised  amounting  to  £15,820,- 
000  at  5 per  cent,  and  in  March,  1896,  an  Anglo-German 
loan  of  £16,000,000  at  5 per  cent  was  contracted.  To  pay 
off  the  balance  of  the  war  indemnity  due  to  Japan  a fur- 
ther loan  of  £16,000,000  was  concluded  on  March  i,  1898, 
with  the  Hongkong  and  Shanghai  Banking  Corporation 
and  the  Deutsch-Asiatische  Bank.  This  loan  was  secured 
on  certain  likin  collections  pledged  by  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, the  collections  being  confided  to  the  Inspector-Gen- 
eral of  Customs.  The  outstanding  amount  of  the  foreign 
debt  is  about  $263,500,000. 

PRODUCTION  AND  INDUSTRY. 

China  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country,  and  the 
land  is  all  freehold,  held  by  families  on  the  payment  of  an 
annual  tax.  Lands  and  houses  are  registered,  and  when 
a sale  takes  place  the  purchaser,  on  informing  the  district 
ruler,  receives,  besides  the  document  given  by  the  seller, 
an  official  statement  of  the  transfer  for  which  he  pays  at 
the  rate  of  6 per  cent  of  the  purchase  money.  Land,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  sold  until  all  the  near  kindred  have  succes- 


200 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


sively  refused  to  purchase.  The  holdings  are  in  general 
small ; the  farm  animals  are  oxen  and  buffaloes ; the  imple- 
ments used  are  primitive;  irrigation  is  common.  Horticul- 
ture is  a favorite  pursuit,  and  fruit  trees  are  grown  in  great 
variety.  Wheat,  barley,  maize,  and  millet  and  other  cer- 
eals, with  peas  and  beans,  are  chiefly  cultivated  in  the 
north,  and  rice  in  the  south.  Sugar,  indigo,  and  cotton  are 
cultivated  in  the  south  provinces.  Opium  has  become  a crop 
of  increasing  importance.  Tea  is  cultivated  exclusively  in 
the  west  and  south,  in  Fu-Chien,  Hupei,  Hunan,  Chiang- 
hsi,  Cheh-Chiang,  An-hui,  Kwangtung,  and  Szechuen.  The 
culture  of  silk  is  equally  important  with  that  of  tea.  The 
mulberry  tree  grows  everywhere,  but  the  best  and  the  most 
silk  comes  from  Kwangtung,  Szechuen,  Cheh-Chiang  and 
Kiang-su.  An  important  feature  in  the  development  of  the 
Chinese  industries  is  the  erection  of  cotton  mills  in  Shang- 
hai, and  of  filatures  for  winding  silk  from  cocoons  in  Shang- 
hai, Canton  and  elsewhere.  In  Shanghai  there  are  26  fila- 
tures, with  8,500  basins,  which  can  reel  off  12,000  piculs 
of  silk  in  a year.  Two  native  cotton  mills  were  started 
in  1890,  and  recently  four  foreign  mill  companies  have  been 
successfully  floated.  In  1898  the  number  of  spindles  erected 
in  Shanghai  was  313,000. 

All  the  18  provinces  contain  coal,  and  China  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  first  coal  countries  of  the  world. 
The  coal  mines  at  Kai-p’ing,  Northern  Chihli,  under  for- 
eign supervision,  have  been  very  productive ; those  of  Fang- 
shan-hsien  supply  Pekin  with  anthracite  fuel.  In  Shan- 
tung the  coal  field  of  Poshan  is  at  present  the  most  pro- 
ductive, but  at  Changkiu-hsien,  Ichou-fu,  and  I-hsien  there 
are  also  promising  coal  fields.  Coal  is  found  also  in  Kansu. 
In  Eastern  Shansi  there  is  a field  of  anthracite  of  an  area 
of  about  13,500  square  miles,  and  in  Western  Shansi  a 
field  of  bituminous  coal  of  nearly  equal  importance.  A Brit- 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE 


201 


ish  syndicate  has  obtained  a concession  for  the  working  of 
the  mines  in  Shansi.  In  South  Eastern  Hunan  the  coal 
area  covers  about  21,700  square  miles,  containing  both  an- 
thracite and  bituminous  coal,  and  in  some  places  the  pro- 
duction is  already  considerable.  In  Central  and  Northern 
Sze-Chuen  coal  is  abundant,  and  the  coal  traffic  is  stated 
to  be  enormous. 

Iron  ores  are  abundant  in  the  anthracite  field  of  Shansi, 
where  the  iron  industry  is  ancient,  and  iron  (found  in  con- 
juction  with  coal)  is  worked  in  Manchuria.  Copper  ore 
is  plentiful  in  Yunnan,  where  the  copper  mining  industry 
has  long  existed,  and  near  the  city  of  Mengtse  tin,  lead, 
and  silver  are  found.  In  Szechuen  a mining  concession  has 
been  granted  to  an  English  company,  and  six  similar  conces- 
sions are  said  to  have  been  granted  to  the  French. 

COMMERCE. 

The  commercial  intercourse  of  China  is  mainly  with  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  British  colonies.  The  following 
table  shows  the  value  of  the  foreign  trade  of  China  for  five 
years  in  haikwan  taels: — 

1894.*  1895.*  1896.*  1897.*  1898.* 

Imports  ..162,102,911  171,696,715  202,589,994  202,828,625  209,579,334 
Exports  ..128,104,522  143,293,211  131,081,421  163,501,358  i59,037»I49 


*These  values  are  the  actual  market  prices  of  the  goods  (imports 
and  exports)  in  the  ports  of  China ; but  for  the  purposes  of  compari- 
son it  is  the  value  of  the  imports  at  the  moment  of  landing  and  of 
the  exports  at  the  moment  of  shipping  that  should  be  taken.  For 
this  purpose  from  the  imports  there  have  to  be  deducted  the  costs 
incurred  after  landing,  namely,  the  expenses  of  landing,  storing  and 
selling,  and  the  duty  paid ; and  to  the  exports  there  have  to  be  added 
the  importer’s  commission,  the  expenses  of  packing,  storing  and 
shipping,  and  the  export  duty.  So  dealt  with,  the  value  of  the 
imports  for  1897  comes  to  177,915,163  haikwan  taels  and  that  of  the 
exports  to  181,769,995  haikwan  taels;  and  the  value  of  the  imports 


202 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


During  1898  the  principal  countries  participated  in  the 
trade  of  China  as  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


Imports  from  Exports  to  Total  trade 
(value  in  haik-  (value  in  haik-  (value  in  haik- 
wan  taels).  wan  taels.)  wan  taels). 

Great  Britain 34,962,474  10,715,952  45,678,426 

Hongkong  97,214,017  62,083,512  159,297,529 

India  19,135,546  1,324,125  20,459,671 

United  States  of  America.  17,163,312  11,986,771  29,150,083 

Continent  of  Europe  (with- 
out Russia) 9,397,792  25,929,114  35,326,906 

Japan 27,376,063* *  16,092,778*  43,468,841 

Russia  (in  Europe  and 

Asia) 1,754,088  17,798,207  19,552,29s 


The  imports  into  China  from  Hongkong  come  origi- 
nally from,  and  the  exports  from  China  to  that  colony  are 
further  carried  on  to,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France, 
America,  Australia,  India,  the  Straits,  and  other  countries. 

The  figures  given  above  include  the  statistics  of  imports 
and  exports  at  the  treaty  ports  for  the  whole  year ; and  also 
the  like  statistics  of  the  junk  trade  of  Hongkong  and  Macao 
with  the  south  of  China  (by  the  Kaulun  and  Lappa  cus- 
tom houses). 

The  chief  imports  and  exports  are  as  follows  (1898)  : — 


Imports — Haikwan  taels. 

Opium  29,255,903 

Cotton  goods 77,618,824 

Raw  cotton 2,839,730 

Woolen  goods 3,190,169 

Metals  9,787,077 

Coal  5,280,626 

Oil,  kerosene 11,914,699 

Seaweed,  fishery 
products,  etc 5,430,842 


Exports — Haikwan  taels. 

Tea  28,879,482 

Silk,  raw  & manuf’d  56,103,719 

Sugar  2,445,891 

Straw  braid 3,i3i,79i 

Hides,  cow  & buffalo  3,747,056 

Paper  i,74i,707 

Clothing  1,982,672 

Chinaware  and  pot- 
tery  1,504,307 


for  1898  comes  to  184,486,528  haikwan  taels  and  that  of  the  exports 
to  177,165,384  haikwan  taels. 

*Including  imports  from  Formosa,  etc.,  haikwan  taels.4,794,251 

*Including  exports  to  Formosa,  etc.,  haikwan  taels. . . 924,629 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE 


\ 

Of  the  tea  in  1898,  200,334  piculs  (each  133  1-3  Ibs.^^ 
went  to  Great  Britain,  896,538  piculs  to  Russia,  156,935  s 
piculs  to  the  United  States,  115,029  piculs  to  Hongkong, 
42,744  piculs  to  Australia,  out  of  a total  of  1,538,600  piculs. 
The  total  export  of  tea  has  been  as  follows  to  foreign  coun- 
tries in  piculs: — 1885,  2,128,751;  1895,  1,865,680;  1896, 
1,712,841';  1897,  1,532,158;  1898,  1,538,600. 

China  has  besides  an  extensive  coasting  trade,  largely 
carried  on  by  British  and  other  foreign  as  well  as  Chinese 
vessels. 

Foreign  countries  have,  in  virtue  of  various  treaties  with 
the  Chinese  government,  the  right  of  access  to  certain  ports 
of  the  Empire.  The  following  is  a list  of  these  treaty  ports, 
with  their  estimated  Chinese  population  and  value  of  their 
direct  foreign  imports  and  exports  for  1898: — 


Name  and  Province—*  Population 

New-Chwang  (Niuchwang),  Shing- 

king 60,000 

Tien-tsin,  Pi-chi-li 1,000,000 

Che-foo  (Chifu)‘  Shan-tung. 35, 000 

Choong-king,  Sze-chuen 300,000 

Ichang,  Hoo-pe 34,000 

Shasi,  Hoo-pe. . . 73,000 

Han-kow  (Hankau),  Ploo-pe. 800,000 

Kow-Kiang,  Kiang-se S5,ooo 

Wu-ho  (Wu-hu),  Ngan-hoei  (Ngan- 

wei) 80,750 

Chin-Kiang,  Kiang-su 140,000 

Shanghai,  Kiang-su 586,000 

Su-chow,  Kiang-su 500,000 

Ninpo,  Che-kiang 255,000 

Hang-Chow,  Che-kiang 700,000 

Wan-Chow,  Che-kiang 80,000 

Foo-Chow  (Fuchau),  Foo-kien 

(Fukien) 650,000 

Amoy,  Foo-kien 96,000 

Swatow,  Quang-tung  (Kwang-tung)  35,000 


Imports.  Exports. 


$ 1,043,482 

6,541,175 

4,511,751 


$ 5,156,387 
7,379423 

1,235,618 


46,303 

12,421 

3,382 

361,475 

90,921,547 

536,821 

31,055 

8,019 

3,619,029 

8,306,859 

9,025,864 


2,777403 


2,549 

689,521 

49,602,889 

9,443 

2,778 

4,122,861 

1,150,222 

2,891,964 


204‘ 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Name  and  Province — 

Population. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Canton,  Quang-tung 

8,594,820 

14,793,873 

Wu-chow,  Quang-see  (Kwang-si) 

50,000 

2,005,642 

824,373 

Sam-shui,  Quang-tung 

892,488 

96,515 

Kongmun  and  Kumchuk,  Quang-tung 

742,386 

40,006 

Kowloon,  Quang-tung 

12,365,623 

16,163,265 

Lappa,  Quang-tung 

2,403,638 

3,864,185 

Kiung-chow,  Quang-tung 

1,433,280 

1,195,801 

Pakhoi,  Quang-tung 

1,700,453 

1,278,500 

Lung-chow,  Quang-se 

85,394 

10,452 

Meng-tsu,  Yunnan 

1,761,856 

875,106 

Se-mao,  Yunnan 

162,386 

25,527 

Yatung,  Thibet  (Tibet) 

Yochau  (Yo-chow),  Honan 

Santuao,  Foo-kien  (Fukien) 

Chingwangtao,  Pi-chi-li 

Wusung,  Kiang-su ‘ 

Since  April,  1887,  the  customs  stations  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hongkong  and  Macao  have  been  placed  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  foreign  customs.  The  same  service  has 
also  been  charged  with  the  collection  of  the  so-called  Likin 
(inland)  tax  on  foreign  opium  imported,  which  is  likely 
to  result  in  a considerable  increase  of  the  foreign  mari- 
time customs  receipts.  The  port  of  Nanking,  which  the 
Chinese  government  consented  to  throw  open  by  a treaty 
made  with  France  in  1858,  in  which  England  participated 
under  the  ‘^most  favored  nation’'  clause,  had  not  been  opened 
at  the  end  of  1898. 

SHIPPING  AND  NAVIGATION. 

During  the  year  1898,  52,661  vessels,  of  34,233,580  tons 
(43,164  being  steamers  of  32,896,014  tons),  entered  and 
cleared  Chinese  ports.  Of  these  22,609,  of  21,265,966  tons, 
were  British;  23,547,  of  8,187,572  tons,  Chinese;  1,831,  of 
1,685,098  tons,  German;  2,262,  of  1,569,134  tons,  Japanese; 
743,  of  239,152  tons,  American;  577,  of  420,078  tons, 
French. 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE 


205 


INTERNAL  COMMUNICATIONS. 

China  is  traversed  in  all  directions  by  numerous  roads, 
and,  though  none  are  paved  or  metalled,  and  all  are  badly 
kept,  a vast  internal  trade  is  carried  on  partly  over  them, 
but  chiefly  by  means  of  numerous  canals  and  navigable  rivers. 
In  February,  1898,  the  Chinese  government  agreed  that  all 
internal  w^aterways  should  be  open  both  to  foreign  and 
native  steamers. 

In  the  north  of  China  a considerable  extent  of  railway 
(mostly  British)  has  been  constructed  and  is  open  for  traf- 
fic. From  Pekin  to  Tien-tsin,  a distance  of  80  miles,  the 
line  is  open,  and  thence  to  Tang-ku  on  the  coast,  a distance 
of  27  miles.  From  Tang-ku  it  runs  through  the  coal  dis- 
trict to  Shan-hai-kuan,  147  miles,  and  thence  alon^  the  coast, 
1 13  miles,  to  Chen-Chou  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Liao- 
tung. As  the  railway  approaches  Chen-Chou,  two  lines 
branch  oflf,  one  of  7 miles  from  Kao  Chiao  to  Tien  Chiao 
Chang  on  the  coast;  the  other  runs  30  miles  inland  from 
Nu  Err  Ho  to  the  Nan  Pao  coal  mines.  The  total  length 
of  line  open  from  Pekin  to  Chen-Chou,  including  the  two 
branches,  Tn  December,  1899,  was  404  miles.  The  line  is 
being  continued  round  the  head  of  the  Liao-tung  Gulf  to 
Yung  Kow,  where  the  system  will  be  connected  by  a Rus- 
sian branch  line  with  the  railway  which  is  being  constructed 
from  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan  to  the  Siberian  railway. 
Another  prolongation  of  the  British  line  is  being  laid  from 
Chen-Chou  to  Hsin  Min  Tun,  106  miles  to  the  northeast, 
and  about  40  miles  west  of  Mukden.  The  Russian  railway 
through  Manchuria  is  being  constructed  and  will  probably 
be  completed  in  1902.  The  main  line  will  have  a length  of 
950  miles,  and  the  South  Manchuria  branch  to  Port  Arthur 
650  miles.  Towards  the  southwest  Pekin  is  connected 
with  Pao-ting-fu,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Chihli,  by 
a line  88  miles  in  length,  from  which,  at  Liu  Li  Ho,  a 


206 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


branch  runs  to  the  Chou  Kow  Tien  coal  fields,  ten  miles 
distant.  The  Pao-Ting-Fu  line,  constructed  with  British 
capital,  was,  in  January,  1900,  transferred  to  a Belgian 
syndicate,  and  will  be  extended  southward  to  Hankow  on 
the  Yangtsze  river.  From  the  Yangtsze  another  projected 
line  (American)  will  run  to  Canton.  Railways  (British) 
are  to  be  constructed  also  for  the  development  of  the  min- 
ing and  petroleum  industries  of  the  province  of  Shansi, 
and  others  to  connect  the  Honan  mines  with  the  Yangtsze 
river  opposite  Nanking,  via  Kaifong.  The  Shanghai-Wu- 
sung  railway  of  12  miles  has  been  open  for  traffic  since 
August,  1898.  From  Shanghai  a projected  line  will  run 
to  Hang-Chow,  Ningpo,  Wenchow,  and  probably  to  Can- 
ton. Other  lines  (British)  are  to  connect  Chingtu  in  the 
province  of  Szechuen  with  Wuchow  and  with  Canton. 
French  lines  are  proposed  to  bring  Tong-King  into  com- 
munication with  the  treaty  ports  of  Mengtsz,  Wuchow,  and 
Pakhoi,  and  also  with  the  province  of  Yunnan. 

The  imperial  Chinese  telegraphs  are  being  rapidly  ex- 
tended all  over  the  Empire.  There  is  a line  between  Pekin 
and  Tien-tsin,  one  hich  connects  the  capital  with  the  prin- 
cipal places  in  Manchuria  up  to  the  Russian  frontier  on  the 
Amur  and  the  Ussuri;  while  Niuchwang,  Chefoo,  Shang- 
hai, Yangchow,  Suchow,  all  the  seven  treaty  ports  on  the 
Yangtsze,  Canton,  Wuchow,  Lungchow,  and  all  the  prin- 
cipal cities  in  the  Empire  are  now  connected  with  each  other 
and  with  the  capital.  The  line  from  Canton,  westerly  has 
penetrated  to  Yunnan-fu,  the  capital  of  Yunnan  province, 
and  beyond  it  to  Manwyne,  near  the  borders  of  Burmah. 
Shanghai  is  also  in  communication  with  Foochow,  Amoy, 
Hashing,  Shaoshing,  Ningpo,  etc.  Lines  have  been  con- 
structed between  Foochow  and  Canton,  and  between  Taku, 
Port  Arthur^  cipd  Seoul,  the  capital  of  Kore^;  and  the  line 


FINANCE  AND  COMMERCE 


207 


along  the  Yangtsze  Valley  has  been  extended  to  Chungking 
in  Szechuen  province.  The  telegraph  lines  have  a length 
of  nearly  4,000  miles.  There  is  direct  overland  communi- 
cation between  Pekin  and  Europe. 

The  postal  work  of  the  Empire  is  carried  on,  under 
the  Minister  of  War,  by  means  of  post-carts  and  runners. 
In  the  eighteen  provinces  are  8,000  offices  for  post-carts, 
and  scattered  over  the  whole  of  the  Chinese  territories  are 
2,040  offices  for  runners.  There  are  also  numerous  private 
postal  couriers,  and  during  the  winter  a service  between 
the  office  of  the  Foreign  Customs  at  Pekin  and  the  out- 
ports.  The  Chinese  Imperial  Post  Office  was  opened  on 
February  2,  1897,  the  management  being  confided  to  the  In- 
spector General  of  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs.  China 
has  also  notified  the  Swiss  government  of  her  intention  of 
joining  the  Universal  Postal  Union. 

MONEY,  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

Money. 

The  sole  official  coinage  and  the  monetary  unit  of  China 
is  the  copper  cash,  of  which  about  1,600 — 1,700  equals  i haik- 
wan  tael,  and  about  1 1 equal  i cent.  The  copper  cash,  how- 
ever, has  risen  in  value ; the  copper  money  purchasable  for  a 
tael  of  silver  cost  the  government  for  metal  alone  1.354  taels 
in  1 898,  and  this  appreciation  of  copper  has  not  only  restricted 
coinage,  but  has  led  to  the  melting  down  of  copper  coin. 
The  silver  sycee  is  the  usual  medium  of  exchange.  Large 
payments  are  made  by  weight  of  silver  bullion,  the  standard 
being  the  Liang  or  tael,  which  varies  at  different  places. 
The  haikwan  (or  customs)  tael,  being  one  tael  weight  of 
pure  silver,  had  a value  equal  in  October,  1898,  to  about  70 
cents,  or  1.43  haikwan  taels  to  a dollar. 

By  an  imperial  decree,  issued  during  1890,  the  silver  dol- 
lar coined  at  the  new  Canton  mint  is  made  current  all  over 


208 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


the  Empire.  It  is  of  the  same  value  as  the  Mexican  and 
United  States  silver  dollars,  and  as  the  Japanese  silver  yen. 
Foreign  coins  are  looked  upon  but  as  bullion,  and  usually 
taken  by  weight,  except  at  the  treaty  ports. 

WEIGHT. 

10  Sze  equals  i Hu. 

10  Hu  equals  i Hao. 

10  Hao  equals  i Li  (nominal  cash). 

10  Li  equals  i Fun  (Candaren). 

10  Fun  equals  i Tsien  (Mace). 

10  Tsien  equals  i Liang  (Tael)— i 1-3  oz.  avoirdupois  by  treaty. 

16  Liang  equals  i Kin  (Catty)— i 1-3  lbs.  avoirdupois  by  treaty. 

100  Kin  equals  i Tan  (Picul)— 133  i-3  lbs.  avoirdupois  by  treaty. 

CAPACITY. 

10  Ko  equals  i Sheng. 

10  Sheng  equals  i Tou  (holding  from  to  10  Kin  of  rice  and 
measuring  from  1.13  to  1.63  gallon).  Commodities,  even  liquids, 
such  as  oil,  spirits,  etc.,  are  commonly  bought  and  sold  by  weight. 

LENGTH. 

10  Fun  equals  i Tsun  (inch). 

10  Tsun  equals  i Chih  (foot) — 14.1  English  inches  by  treaty. 

10  Chih  equals  i Chang — 2 fathoms. 

I Li  equals,  approximately,  3 cables. 

In  the  tariff  settled  by  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and 
China,  the  Chih  of  14  i-io  English  inches  has  been  adopted 
as  the  legal  standard.  The  standards  of  weight  and  length 
vary  all  over  the  Empire,  the  Chih,  for  example,  ranging 
from  9 to  16  English  inches,  and  the  Chang  (equals  10  Chih) 
in  proportion ; but  at  the  treaty  ports  the  use  of  the  foreign 
treaty  standard  of  Chih  and  Chang  is  becoming  common. 


THE  CHINESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  209 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  CHINESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 

The  army  of  China  comprises; — 

1.  The  Eight  Banners,  nominally  containing  about  300,- 
000  men,  descendants  of  the  Manchu  conquerors  and  their 
allies.  The  number  maintained  on  a war  footing  is  from 
80,000  to  100,000.  The  whole  force  is  subdivided  into  three 
groups,  consisting  respectively  of  Manchus,  Mongols,  and 
Chinese,  and  forms  a sort  of  hereditary  profession  within 
which  intermarriage  is  compulsory.  About  37,000  are  sta- 
tioned in  garrisons  in  Manchuria;  the  Imperial  Guard  at 
Pekin  contains  from  4,000  to  6,000. 

2.  The  Ying  Ping,  or  National  Army,  called  also  the 
Green  Flags  and  the  Five  Camps  (five  being  the  unit  of  sub- 
division). This  army  consists  of  18  corps,  one  for  each 
province,  under  the  Governor  or  Gover;ior-General.  The 
nominal  strength  is  from  540,000  to  660,000  men,  of  whom 
about  200,000  are  available  for  war,  never  more  than  one- 
third  being  called  out.  The  most  important  contingent  is 
the  Tientsin  Army  Corps,  nominally  100,000  strong,  really 
about  35,000,  with  modern  organization,  drill,  and  arms, 
employed  in  garrison  duty  at  Tien-tsin,  and  at  Taku  and 
other  forts. 

Besides  these  forces  there  are  mercenary  troops,  raised 
in  emergencies,  and  Mongolian  and  other  irregular  cavalry, 
nominally  200,000  strong,  really  about  20,000,  but  of  no 
military  value.  The  total  land  army  on  peace  footing  is  put 
at  300,000  men,  and  on  war  footing  at  about  1,000,000,  but 


210 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


the  army,  as  a whole,  has  no  unity  or  cohesion ; there  is  no 
proper  discipline,  the  drill  is  mere  physical  exercise,  the 
weapons  are  long  since  obsolete,  and  there  is  no  transport, 
commissariat,  or  medical  service. 

It  is  reported,  with  what  truth  we  cannot  say,  that 
900,000  Mauser  rifles  were  imported  into  China  between 
1896  and  1900. 

The  Chinese  navy,  during  the  war  with  Japan,  disap- 
pointed those  who  regarded  it  as  an  effective  fighting  force. 
At  the  opening  of  hostilities,  on  July  25th,  1894,  when  the 
Kow  Shing  transport  was  sunk,  an  engagement  took  place 
between  the  Japanese  cruiser  Yoshino  and  the  Tsi-Yuen, 
with  other  vessels,  and  the  small  Chinese  cruiser  Kuang-Yi 
was  driven  ashore  and  destroyed.  In  the  battle  of  the  Yalu 
(September  17th),  or  in  immediate  consequence  of  that 
action,  the  barbette  armor-clad  King  Yuen,  2,850  tons,  and 
the  cruisers  Chih  Yuen,  2,300  tons,  Chao  Yung,  1,350 
tons,  Yang  Wei,  1,350  tons,  and  Kuang  Ki,  1,030 
tons,  were  sunk  or  burned.  Subsequently  at  Wei-Hai-Wei 
the  barbette  ship  Ting  Yuen  and  the  cruiser  Ching  Yuen  were 
sunk,  and  the  armor-clads  Chen  Yuen  and  Ping  Yuen  were 
captured.  The  Chinese  fleet  is  organized  in  district  squad- 
rons, which  are  severally  raised  and  maintained  by  the  pro- 
vincial viceroys.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  war  the  Chen- 
Hai  and  the  Kang  Chi  alone  remained  to  China  of  her 
effective  Pei  Yang  squadron.  Some  swift  vessels  have  since 
been  added  to  the  fleet.  Among  these  are  the  cruisers 
Hai  Chi  and  Hai  Tien  (4,300  tons)  launched  in  the  Tyne 
in  1897  and  1898.  They  have  6-inch  armored  shields 
and  a 5-inch  deck,  and  they  carry  two  8-inch,  ten  4.7-inch, 
and  twelve  3-pr.  Armstrong  quick-firers.  The  speed  is 
twenty-four  knots.  The  small  cruisers  Hai-Yung,  Hai 
Shen,  and  Hai  Shew,  2,950  tons,  have  been  launched 
at  Stettin  ( 1897) ; and  three  destroyers,  the  Hai 


THE  CHINESE  ARMY  AND  NAVY  211 


Lung  (33.6  knots),  Hai  Niu,  Hai  Ching,  and  Hai  Hoha 
at  Elbing.  A French  engineer,  M.  Doyere,  has  reorganized 
the  arsenal  of  Foochow,  and  a torpedo  gun  vessel  (817  tons) 
and  a 20.5  knot  torpedo  boat  are  in  hand  there.  The  Chi- 
nese bluejacket  is  as  good  as  any  in  the  world;  hence  the 
value  to  Japan  of  an  alliance  with  China,  allowing  her  to 
officer  the  Chinese  navy. 


APPENDIX 


THE  OPEN  DOOR. 

Lord  Charles  Beresford^'s  Speech  Before  the  Commer- 
cial Club,  Chicago,  Feb.  i8,  1899. 

‘^Now  with  regard  to  China.  What  did  I find  in  China? 
I suppose  you  asked  me  to  speak  because  I have  just  come 
from  China.  I found  that  the  natural  sources  of  China  are 
simply  enormous.  They  are  incalculable.  The  possibilities 
of  trade  of  the  future  are  limitless,  and  I do  not  think  any 
merchant  or  any  man  who  understands  these  questions 
far  better  than  I could  do  would  disagree  with  me  with 
regard  to  that  point. 

‘‘Even  now  with  the  energy  and  the  enterprise  of  the  for- 
eigner in  China,  I can  assure  you  that  we,  the  foreigner, 
have  barely  scratched  the  surface  of  that  great  country  with 
regard  to  the  possibility  of  trade  in  the  future.  You  may 
ask  me  why  is  this  ? There  are  three  reasons.  One  is  the 
extraordinary  exclusiveness  of  the  Chinese ; the  distrust  of 
the  foreigner  going  into  the  country.  Another  is  the  dislike 
of  the  foreigner  generally.  And  the  third  and  most  im- 
portant is  the  antiquated  form  of  government  in  that  coun- 
try. Those  three  causes  really  prevent  those  developments 
which  are  natural  in  a country  that  has  the  same  resources 
as  China. 

“Now  comes  the  point  of  the  future.  Whatever  the 
government  of  China  says,  whatever  the  feeling  of  the  Chi- 
nese people  may  be — and  we  must  always  respect  the  feel- 
ings of  the  inhabitants  of  a country — it  is  absolutely  certain 
that  China  will  be  opened  up.  I will  give  you  my  reasons : 


214 


APPENDIX 


^'The  greatest  civilizer  in  the  world  is  the  railway — the 
line  of  communication.  And  various  countries — your  own 
country,  in  particular — have  got  concessions  for  building 
railways.  I need  not  tell  you,  gentlemen,  that  when  once 
the  American  has  got  a concession  to  do  a thing  it  is  certain 
to  be  done.  Therefore,  China  is  certain  to  be  opened  up 
in  the  near  future  by  means  of  these  railways.  Even  though 
China  is  an  empire  4,000  years  old,  and  they  have  prejudices 
4,000  years  old  and  hates  4,000  years  old,  that  will  not  pre- 
vent China  being  opened  up.  But  the  whole  question  is  a 
gigantic  problem,  and  I do  believe  the  opening  up  of 
China  and  the  development  of  trade  in  China  is  the  greatest 
question  with  regard  to  trade  and  commerce  that  we  have 
had  during  this  century  or  any  century  preceding  it. 

‘'The  danger  in  regard  to  China  is  that  China  herself, 
from  her  effete  government,  may  break  up,  owing  to  dis- 
turbances all  over  the  country.  What  will  happen  then? 
Those  countries  that  have  properties  in  China,  and  have 
investments  there,  and  have  trade  and  commerce  there,  will 
naturally  do  their  best  to  protect  that  trade  and  commerce. 
I myself  saw  signs  of  internal  disturbances,  but  I could  not 
rest  there.  I went  and  asked  the  viceroys.  I have  seen 
every  one  of  the  important  men  in  China,  barring  two. 

‘T  have  seen  six  of  the  eight  viceroys  who  rule  over 
sixty  millions  to  seventy  millions,  and  numbers  of  people  of 
that  sort,  and  these  viceroys  have  told  me  that  they  are 
afraid  of  disturbances.  I said  the  history  of  China  is  one 
long  story  of  rebellions  and  tremendous  crushings  of  those 
rebellions. 

“ ‘O,  yes,’  they  said,  ‘but  we  have  never  been  in  the 
position  that  we  are  now.  It  is  now  a financial  question.  The 
whole  of  our  available  assets  is  devoted  to  paying  the  in- 
terest on  foreign  loans.  The  consequence  is  that  we  have 
got  no  money  to  carry  on  a provincial  government.  The 


APPENDIX 


215 


result  IS  that  we  are  obliged  to  discharge  a large  number 
of  our  troops  and  we  are  obliged  to  underpay  a large  num- 
ber that  remains.  That  is  why  we  are  afraid  of  disturb- 
ances.’ 

‘'When  I was  in  China  the  Province  of  Sze-chuen  was 
the  scene  of  one  of  the  disturbances.  The  British  Consul 
himself  wrote  me  a letter  in  which  he  said  there  were  6,000,- 
000  taels  of  property  that  belonged  to  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sions that  had  been  destroyed  by  one  of  the  rebels  in  Sze- 
chuen.  Since  I came  to  your  country  I have  read  in  the 
papers  that  those  disturbances  are  becoming  fomented  all 
over  the  empire.  Therefore  it  is  not  a question  of  what 
foreign  powers  are  doing.  It  is  China  herself  that  will  cause 
the  breaking  up. 

“How  is  China  to  be  opened  up  in  a peaceful  manner 
with  regard  to  the  claims  and  the  wishes  of  all  nations  ? I 
have  a suggestion  to  make  with  regard  to  this.  First  and 
foremost,  it  is  necessary  for  commerce  and  enterprise  and 
industries  and  investments  that  China  should  hold  the 
open  door  all  through  their  empire. 

“What  is  the  open  door?  It  is  merely  that  the  treaties 
as  they  stand  and  exist  now  at  this  moment  should  be  held 
to  and  not  altered.  What  are  the  existing  treaties  ? They 
are  treaties  that  no  country  is  to  extend  its  territory.  No 
country  is  to  have  sovereign  rights  in  China.  The  open 
door  means,  as  you  know,  a fair  field  and  no  favors  to  all 
nations.  It  is  well  expressed  by  one  of  our  leading  states- 
men at  home,  Mr.  Arthur  Balfour:  ‘An  equal  trade  for 

traders  of  all  nations.’  That  has  always  been  the  policy  of 
Great  Britain.  We  hold  to  that  policy  because  we  know 
it  is  better  for  us,  and  it  is  a policy  that  is  not  inimicable 
to  the  interest  of  any  other  nation,  and  the  traders  of  all 
nations  can  go  and  derive  great  advantages  in  any  country 
where  we  hold  domination  or  where  we  have  colonies. 


216 


APPENDIX 


“Such  a policy  as  the  open  door  must  be  for  the  general 
good  of  the  whole  world,  and  naturally  it  is  for  the  general 
good  first  and  foremost  of  the  commercial  world.  Indi- 
vidual industries  in  different  instances  may  possibly  suffer. 
But  that  is  not  our  business.  Our  business  is  the  vol- 
ume of  trade,  and  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  our  colonies  if 
any  number  of  Germans  and  Americans  go  to  those  colo- 
nies and  carry  out  their  business  under  the  laws  of  those 
colonies.  That  increases  the  volume  of  British  trade.  It  is 
the  volume  of  British  trade  we  have  to  look  to  and  not  the 
individual  industry. 

“Once  or  twice  in  my  visits  to  China  I found  some  Brit- 
ish merchants  complaining  about  their  industry.  I said: 
‘My  dear  man,  I cannot  help  you.  We  have  made  our  great 
riches  by  the  open  door,  and  we  must  not  change  if  your 
industry  is  hurt.  I am  sorry  for  it,  but  you  must  go  and 
trade  somewhere  else,  or  trade  on  the  same  lines  as  the  man 
who  is  cutting  you  out.’  We,  as  Britishers,  cannot  in  any 
way  interfere  with  the  big,  bold,  free  policy  of  the  open 
door  wherever  we  have  dominion  or  wherever  we  have  any 
power.  As  the  result  of  that  policy,  not  one  of  our  colonies 
cost  the  British  taxpayer  one  single  shilling. 

“The  great  question  is,  the  practical  point  is,  how  are 
we  to  keep  this  open  door.  I went  carefully  into  all  the  trade 
statistics.  I did  not  only  take  the  opinion  of  my  own 
countrymen,  but  I went  to  the  Americans,  and  I shall  ever 
be  grateful  for  the  way  the  American  merchants  received 
me  in  China.  I went  to  the  Germans.  I shall  be  equally 
grateful  to  the  Germans.  I went  to  the  Japanese,  and  I came 
to  the  conclusion  that  all  the  great  trade  interests  in  China 
are  certainly  centered  in  those  four  countries — America, 
Germany,  Japan  and  Great  Britain.  My  suggestion  was 
that  there  should  be  some  sort  of  commercial  alliances  or 
commercial  understanding  between  those  countries  that 


APPENDIX 


217 


own  the  trade,  with  regard  to  future  development  of  that 
trade.  Russia  and  France  have  only  import  trade.  That 
is  the  reason  that  I have  suggested  those  other  four  coun- 
tries for  a union  in  the  nature  of  an  alliance. 

^The  two  countries,  Russia  and  France,  will  naturally 
say  that  they  have  trade.  So  they  have,  they  have  got  an 
import  trade.  Russia  has  a large  amount  of  tea,  and  France 
has  a large  amount  of  silk,  but  both  of  those  commodities 
are  carried  in  British  bottoms. 

‘^My  point  is  that  the  four  countries  that  I have  men- 
tioned should  do  something  in  order  to  keep  the  door  open 
with  regard  to  the  future.  Those  four  countries  also  do 
not  want  or  wish  to  have  any  territory  whatever.  What 
they  want  is  simply  commercial  freedom  with  regard  to 
France  and  Russia.  I do  not  say  anything  disrespectful 
to  France  or  Russia,  but  in  the  past,  history  has  shown 
us  that  they  are  countries  that  seek  territory.  If  France  and 
Russia  want  to  get  territory,  there  is  no  doubt  they  do  it 
with  the  idea  that  they  will  benefit  that  country,  but  the 
point  is  that  the  four  countries  I have  named  do  not  want 
territory.  They  want  commercial  freedom.  Therefore  in 
my  humble  opinion  they  are  the  four  countries  to  argue, 
to  talk  out  what  is  best,  with  regard  to  keeping  the  door 
open  in  China. 

“The  first  essential  to  the  open  door  would  naturally  be 
to  keep  China  in  its  integrity,  and  the  next  essential  must 
be  that  essential  upon  which  every  country  exists  at  the 
present  moment,  which  is  an  efficient  military  and  police. 
It  is  not  worth  while  putting  out  propositions  of  reform- 
ing the  finances,  of  reforming  the  government,  and  doing  all 
that  sort  of  thing,  unless  you  have  the  first  essential  in  any- 
thing of  that  sort,  and  an  efficient  military  and  police. 

“Now  as  to  the  point  of  the  Chinese  being  good  soldiers. 
I do  not  think  there  are  any  people  in  the  world  in  whom 


218 


APPENDIX 


the  characteristics  of  the  good  soldier  are  better  developed 
than  in  the  Chinese.  We  must  not  judge  at  all  by  the  last 
war.  They  were  reported  then  to  have  run  away.  I do  not 
know  wliat  the  gentlemen  in  this  room  would  have  done 
if  they  had  found  themselves  in  the  same  position  as  the 
members  of  the  Chinese  army. 

saw  the  men  themselves.  There  were  thousands  of 
them  who  had  never  seen  a rifle.  They  were  given  rifles  and 
were  helped  to  the  ammunition  out  of  barrels  by  the  hand- 
ful. You  would  hardly  believe  it  in  such  days  as  these,  but 
the  ammunition  was  of  thirteen  different  sorts,  and  a man 
who  didn’t  know  what  a rifle  was,  was  given  pistol  ammu- 
nition for  a breech-loading  rifle.  I will  tell  you  what  I 
should  have  done.  I should  have  made  tracks  to  the  rear 
as  fast  as  ever  I could  when  I found  the  Japanese  firing  at 
me  and  I had  a breech-loading  rifle  with  pistol  ammunition. 

‘Tn  our  old  war  we  had  some  hundred  of  coolies.  I 
wasn’t  up  there  myself,  but  many  of  my  brother  officers 
were.  Those  coolies  were  shot  down  by  hundreds,  but  not 
one  of  them  wavered.  Why?  Because  we  paid  them  loy- 
ally, according  to  our  contract,  and  fed  and  clothed  them 
according  to  our  contract,  which  they  never  got  from  their 
own  people. 

^T  have  been  all  over  one  of  their  arsenals.  I have  seen 
the  most  excellent  tools,  a great  number  of  American,  Ger- 
man, and  British  tools,  good  tools  and  modern  tools,  in  the 
arsenals  and  well  able  to  do  good  work.  But  what  are 
they  doing?  You  will  hardly  believe  it,  they  are  absolutely 
in  some  of  these  arsenals  making  a sort  of  weapon  that  old 
Noah  would  have  discredited  for  the  ark.  It  is  something 
between  a rifle  and  a gun,  because  it  is  not  carefully 
grooved.  The  longest  one  I ever  saw  was  nine  feet  eight 
inches  long.  It  weighed  about  fifty-two  pounds.  The  pro- 
cess of  maneuvering  with  it  when  you  go  into  action  is  to 


APPENDIX 


219 


lay  it  along  the  shoulders  of  three  men,  who  as  a rule  are 
not  the  same  height.  It  is  then  fired  by  a fourth  man  who 
looks  along  the  sight.  But  it  is  a breech-loading  gun  and 
they  think  it  is  perfectly  wonderful.  This  is  the  weapon 
they  arc  turning  out  now  by  the  hundreds. 

‘T  have  inspected  their  armies.  Personally  with  an  in- 
terpeter  I have  put  the  troops  through  maneuvers.  I tell 
you  at  this  moment  those  men  are  splendid  men  if  they  were 
trained.  But  out  of  their  vast  armies  they  have  only  7,000 
men  whom  you  can  call  properly  drilled  and  they  were 
drilled  by  the  Germans.  At  this  moment  out  of  a supposed 
army  of  200,000  men  they  have  only  7,000  soldiers.  The 
rest  are  coolies,  but  out  of  the  material  that  they  have  they 
could  make  a most  formidable  army  of  200,000  men,  and 
could  support  it  on  the  money  they  now  spend  and  throw 
uselessly  away  in  the  manner  that  I have  endeavored  to 
explain  to  you. 

‘T  have  seen  remarks  in  some  of  your  papers  to  the  effect 
that  my  proposal  is  to  put  China  under  the  tutelage  or 
dominion  of  the  four  countries  I have  named.  It  is  nothing 
of  the  sort.  It  is  merely  that  we  should  furnish  them  officers 
and  men  to  put  this  army  in  order  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Chinese  nation  and  the  security  of  the  trade  with  China,  and 
help  the  future  development  of  trade  with  those  countries 
that  now  trade  with  China. 

^There  have  been  some  remarks  made  as  to  this  ques- 
tion of  an  alliance.  I must  confess  that  the  word  alliance 
is  likely  to  be  misunderstood.  I have  never  said,  or  wished 
to  say,  or  thought  of  saying,  that  America  and  Great  Britain 
should  have  an  alliance  for  offense  and  defense.  It  would 
be  a most  stupid  thing  to  say.  If  Great  Britain  had  some 
bother  in  Europe,  what  business  is  that  of  the  Americans  ? 
You  don’t  suppose  that  your  people  would  think  of  going 
to  war  about  such  a question  as  that  ? 


220 


APPENDIX 


“What  I meant  was  a sort  of  commercial  understand- 
ing. That  is  a better  way ; an  understanding  with  regard 
to  China  alone  and  with  regard  to  the  trade  and  commerce 
in  China  alone  in  order  that  we  should  help  China  itself,  and 
help  in  helping  her.  That  is  all.  The  question  of  the  clat- 
tering of  fleets  and  of  armies  and  all  that  sort  of  question, 
and  making  remarks  that  might  be  held  as  irritating  to 
the  two  other  great  powers,  is  far  from  my  wish,  and  I 
never  said  anything  of  the  sort.  I am  merely  speaking  of 
trade  and  commerce  in  China,  how  best  we  can  keep  the 
open  door,  how  my  proposal  or  suggestion  is  calculated 
for  peace,  and  in  no  way  irritating  to  the  other  countries, 
and  I mention  the  four  countries  because  those  four  coun- 
tries are  the  countries  that  hold  the  trade  now. 

“Take  our  two  countries.  If  China  is  open  to  the  world, 
as  I hope  she  will  be,  why,  with  our  energy,  our  enterprise, 
beyond  all  our  capital,  we  must  be  the  dominant  power  in 
the  trade  of  China,  although  all  nations  have  the  same  privi- 
leges as  ourselves.  I hope  that  it  is  understood  now  what 
I meant  by  an  alliance  of  those  four  countries.  The  ques- 
tion of  what  you  may  call  the  crisis  in  the  breaking  up  of 
China  is  only  postponed,  in  my  opinion.  It  is  certain  to 
come  sooner  or  later,  and  isn’t  it  the  business  of  us  who 
have  trade  in  China  to  look  the  question  in  the  face  and  de- 
vise some  means  by  which  we  can  protect  our  trade  and 
commerce  in  the  future,  some  means  that  will  not  be  offen- 
sive to  other  countries,  and  some  means  that  will  be  for  the 
benefit  of  ourselves  in  the  way  of  trade  and  commerce  ? 

“Now,  let  us  take  the  other  policy.  I cannot  conceive 
anything  that  is  more  mystifying,  that  is  more  unconclusive, 
or  more  irritating  than  what  is  called  the  ‘sphere  of  in- 
fluence’ policy.  It  is  a policy  of  grab  and  of  irritation.  You 
have  seen  it  lately  in  Africa.  Everybody  wants  more  than 
he  has  got ; everybody  wants  something  that  somebody  else 


APPENDIX 


221 


has.  The  sphere  of  influence  policy,  in  my  opinion,  is  cer-  \ 
tain  to  drift  into  war. 

‘'One  of  your  papers  said:  Tt  is  all  very  well,  but 

American  trade  is  good  now;  it  is  getting  on  capitally. 
Why  do  we  want  to  interfere  with  this  thing  at  all  ?’  That 
is  true.  American  trade  is  growing  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
But  isn’t  that  talk  rather  like  the  man  who  says : T have  j 
lived  in  this  beautiful  house  all  my  life,  full  of  pictures  anr>  - 
valuables,  and  so  did  my  grandfather  before  me,  and  I anfl 
not  going  to  have  a fire  service  in  it ; it  has  lasted  so  well.’* 
And  he  endeavors  probably  to  put  the  fire  service  in  the  ^ 
house  after  the  house  is  alight.  It  is  better  , to  have  the  fire 
service  in  before,  and  then  the  house  is  protected.  . 

‘T  do  believe  this,  that  in  this  question  of  China,  with  ^ 
regard  to  our  coming  closer  together,  I do  honestly  believe 
that  it  is  the  biggest  question  that  the  world  has  had  to  face 
this  century.  I believe  if  we  keep  the  door  open,  that  we 
are  adopting  a policy  which  is  absolutely  fair  and  square 
to  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  and  is  absolutely  good  for 
China  itself.  I believe  we  shall  do  good  not  only  to  trade  j 
and  commerce,  but  to  humanity  and  Christianity,  and  the 
whole  world  at  large.” 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA  223 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 

B.  C. 

Supposed  age  of  Confucius  (Kungfutze),  the  philosopher. ..  .551-479 

Stupendous  wall  of  China  completed 21 1 

Literature  and  the  art  of  printing  encouraged 202 

Battle  between  Phraates  and  the  Scythians;  the  Chinese  aided 
the  latter,  and  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  Caspian:  their 

first  appearance  in  history  (Lenglet) 129 

The  religion  of  Laot-se  begun 15 

A.  D. 

A form  of  Buddhism,  or  the  religion  of  Fo,  introuced about  68-81 

Nankin  becomes  the  capital  420 

The  atheistical  philosopher,  San-Shin,  flourishes 449 

The  Nestorian  Christians  permitted  to  preach 635 

They  are  proscribed  and  extirpated 845 

China  ravaged  by  Tartars,  9th  to  nth  centuries. 

Seat  of  government  transferred  to  Pekin 1260 

Marco  Polo  introduces  missionaries 1275 

Kublai  Khan  establishes  the  Yuen  or  Mongol  dynasty. ..  .about  1275 

Ming  dynasty 1368 

Canal,  called  the  Yu  Ho,  completed about  1400 

Europeans  first  arrive  at  Canton  1517 

Macao  is  granted  to  the  Portuguese 1536 

Jesuit  missionaries  are  sent  from  Rome 1575 

The  country  is  conquered  by  the  eastern  or  Manchu  Tartars, 

who  establish  the  present  reigning  Tsing  dynasty 1616-43 

Tea  brought  to  England  1660 

An  earthquake  throughout  China  buries  300,000  persons  at 

Pekin  alone  1662 

Galdan,  a prince  of  Jangaria,  conquers  Kashgaria  and  becomes 
supreme  in  Central  Asia,  1678;  checked  by  Kang-hi,  1689; 

totally  defeated  1695 

Commerce  with  East  India  Company  begins  1680 

Jesuit  missionaries  preach 1692 

Commercial  relations  with  Russia 1719-27 


224 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


The  Jesuits  expelled 1724-32 

Another  general  earthquake  destroys  100,000  persons  at  Pekin, 

and  80,000  in  a suburb 1731 

Successful  war  in  Central  Asia;  Davatsi  and  his  opponent, 
Amur  Sana,  subdued  by  Keen-lung,  1755  et  seq.;  Kashgar, 

Khokand,  the  Khirgez,  etc.,  annexed 1760 

In  a salute  by  an  English  ship  in  China,  a gun  was  inadvert- 
ently fired,  which  killed  a native ; the  government  demanded 

the  gunner ; he  was  soon  strangled 1785 

Earl  Macartney's  embassy  arrives  at  Pekin;  his  reception  by 

the  emperor  Sept.  14  1793 

[This  embassy  threw  light  on  the  empire;  it  appeared  to  be  di- 
vided into  15  provinces,  containing  4,402  walled  cities;  the 
population  of  the  whole  was  given  at  333,000,000;  its  an- 
nual revenues  at  £66,000,000;  and  the  army,  including  the 
Tartars,  1,000,000  of  infantry  and  800,000  cavalry;  the  reli-' 
gion  Pagan,  and  the  government  absolute.  Learning,  and 
the  arts  and  sciences,  were  encouraged,  and  ethics  studied.] 

He  is  ordered  to  depart Oct.  7 1793 

And  arrives  in  England Sept.  6 1794 

The  affair  of  the  East  India  Company’s  ship  Neptune,  when  a 

Chinaman  was  killed 1807 

Edict  against  Christianity  1812 

Chinese  rule  in  Central  Asia  weakened 1812 

Lord  Amherst's  embassy;  he  leaves  England Feb.  8 1816 

[His  lordship  failed  in  the  objects  of  his  mission,  having  refused 
to  make  the  prostration  of  the  kotow,  lest  he  should  there- 
by compromise  the  majesty  of  England.] 

Temporary  insurrection  in  Kashgar  1826,  et  seq. 

Exclusive  rights  of  the  East  India  Company  cease April  22  1834 

Free-trade  ships  sail  for  England April  25  1834 

Lord  Napier  arrives  at  Macao  to  superintend  British  com- 
merce   July  15  1834 

Affair  between  the  natives  and  two  British  ships  of  war;  sev- 
eral Chinese  killed  Sept.  5 1834 

Lord  Napier  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir 

John)  Davis Oct.  ii  1834 

Opium  dispute  begins;  the  trade  prohibited  by  the  emperor. Nov.  1834 

Chinese  seize  the  Argyle  and  crew Jan.  31  1835 

Opium  burnt  at  Canton  by  Chinese Feb.  23  1835 

Captain  Elliot,  chief  British  commissioner Dec.  14  1836 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


225 


A British  commissioner  settled  at  Canton March  1837 

Admiral  Maitland  arrives  at  Macao July  12  1838 


Commissioner  Lin  orders  seizure  of  opium,  March  18;  Brit- 
ish and  other  residents  forbidden  to  leave  Canton,  March 

19;  the  factories  surrounded  and  outrages  committed 

March  24  1839 

Captain  Elliot  requires  British  subjects  to  surrender  to  him  all 
opium,  promising  them  full  value  of  it,  March  27;  half 
of  it  is  given  up  as  contraband  to  the  Chinese,  April  20; 
the  remainder  (20,283  chests)  surrendered.  May  21 ; Cap- 
tain Elliot  and  the  British  merchants  leave  Canton,  May 


24;  the  opium  destroyed  by  the  Chinese June  3 1839 

Affair  between  the  British  and  American  seamen  and  the  Chi- 
nese; a native  killed July  7 1839 

Hongkong  taken  Aug.  23  1839 


The  British  boat  Black  Joke  attacked,  and  the  crew  murdered, 

Aug.  24;  the  British  merchants  retire  from  Macao.  Aug.  26  1839 
Affair  at  Kow-lung  between  British  boats  and  Chinese  junks 

Sept.  4 1839 

Attack  by  28  armed  junks  on  the  British  frigates  Volage  and 

Hyacinth)  several  junks  blown  up Nov.  3 1839 

The  British  trade  with  China  ceases,  by  an  edict  of  the  em- 
peror, and  the  last  servant  of  the  company  leaves  this 

day  Dec.  6 1839 

Edict  of  emperor  interdicting  all  trade  and  intercourse  with 

England  forever Jan.  5 1840 

The  Hellas  ship  attacked  by  armed  junks,  May  22;  blockade  of 
Canton  by  a British  fleet,  by  orders  from  Sir  Gordon  Bremer, 

June  28 ; the  Blonde  with  a flag  of  truce  fired  on  at  Amoy, 

July  2;  Ting-hai,  in  Chusan,  surrenders,  July  5;  blockade 
established  along  the  Chinese  coast,  July  10;  Mr.  Staun- 
ton carried  off  to  Canton Aug.  6 1840 

Captain  Elliot,  on  board  a British  steamship,  enters  the  Peiho 

river,  near  Pekin Aug.  ii  1840 

The  ship  Kite  lost  on  a sandbank,  and  the  captain’s  wife  and  a 
part  of  the  crew  are  captured  by  the  natives,  and  confined 

in  cages Sept.  15  1840 

Lin  finally  degraded ; Keshin  appointed  imperial  commissioner, 

Sept.  16;  Capt.  Elliot’s  truce  with  him Nov.  6 1840 

British  plenipotentiaries  off  Macao Nov.  20  1840 

Admiral  Elliot’s  resignation  announced Nov.  29  1840 


226 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Mr.  Staunton  released Dec.  12  1840 

Negotiations  cease,  owing  to  breach  of  faith  on  the  part  of 

the  Chinese  emperor Jan.  6 1841 

Chuen-pe  and  Tae-coc-tow,  and  173  guns  (some  sent  tO'  Eng- 
land) captured Jan.  7 1841 

Hongkong  ceded  by  Keshin  to  Great  Britain,  and  $6,000,000 
agreed  to  be  paid  within  ten  days  to  the  British  authori- 
ties   Jan.  20  1841 

Hongkong  taken  possession  of Jan.  26  1841 

The  emperor  rejects  Keshin’s  treaty,  Feb.  ii;  hostilities  re- 
sumed, Feb.  23;  Chusan  evacuated,  Feb.  24;  rewards  pro- 
claimed at  Canton  for  the  bodies  of  Englishmen,  dead  or 

alive;  $50,000  to  be  given  for  chiefs Feb.  25  1841 

Bogue  forts  taken  by  Sir  G.  Bremer;  Admiral  Kwan  killed; 

459  guns  captured Feb.  26  1841 

The  British  squadron  proceeds  to  Canton,  March  i ; Sir  H. 
Gough  takes  command  of  the  army,  March  2;  hostilities 
again  suspended,  March  3;  and  again  resumed,  March  6; 

Keshin  degraded  by  the  emperor * .March  12  1841 

Flotilla  of  boats  destroyed.  Canton  threatened,  the  foreign  fac- 
tories seized,  and  461  guns  taken  by  the  British  forces 

March  18  1841 

New  commissioners  from  Pekin  arrived  at  Canton April  14  1841 

Hongkong  Gazette  first  published May  I 1841 

Captain  Elliot  prepares  to  attack  Canton May  17  1841 

Heights  behind  Canton  taken May  25  1841 

The  city  ransomed  for  $6,000,000 ; $5,000,000  paid  down ; hostili- 
ties cease  May  31  1841 

British  forces  withdrawn,  June  i ; and  British  trade  re-opened 

July  16  1841 

Arrival  at  Macao  of  Sir  Henry  Pottinger,  who,  as  plenipo- 
tentiary, proclaims  the  objects  of  his  mission;  Captain  Elliot 

superseded Aug.  10  1841 

Amoy  taken  and  296  guns  destroyed Aug.  27  1841 

The  Bogue  forts  destroyed Sept.  14  1841 

Ting-hae  taken,  136  guns  captured,  and  Chusan  re-occupied  by 

Oct.  13;  Yu-yaou,  Tsze-kee,  and  Foong-hua Dec.  28  1841 

Chinese  attack  Ning-po  and  Chin-hae,  and  are  repulsed  with 
great  loss,  March  10;  8,000  Chinese  are  routed  near  Tze- 

kee March  15  1842 

Cha-pou  attacked,  defenses  destroyed May  18  1842 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


227 


The  British  squadron  enters  the  river  Kiang,  June  13;  capture 
of  Woo-sung  and  of  230  guns  and  stores,  June  16;  Shang- 
hai taken  June  19  1842 

The  British  armament  anchors  near  the  ‘‘Golden  Isle,*'  July  20; 
Chin-Keang  taken;  the  Tartar  general  and  many  of  the 
garrison  commit  suicide,  July  21 ; the  advanced  ships 
reach  Nankin;  Aug.  4;  the  whole  fleet  arrives  and  disem- 
barkation commences,  Aug.  9;  Keying  arrives  at  Nankin, 

with  full  powers  to  treat  for  peace Aug.  12  1842 

Treaty  of  peace  signed  before  Nankin  on  board  the  Cornwallis 
by  Sir  Henry  Pottinger  for  England,  and  Keying  Elepoo* 
and  Neu-Kien  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  emperor — 
[Conditions : lasting  peace  and  friendship  between  the  two 
empires;  China  to  pay  $21,000,000;  Canton,  Amoy,  Foo- 
choofoo,  Ningpo  and  Shanghai  to  be  thrown  open  to  the 
British,  and  consuls  to  reside  at  these  cities ; Hongkong  to 
be  ceded  in  perpetuity  to  England,  etc. ; Chusan  and  Ku- 
lang-su  to  be  held  by  the  British  until  the  provisions  are 

fulfilled**] Aug.  29  1842 

*He  took  part  (it  was  said  without  authority)  in  arranging  the 
treaty  of  Tien-tsin  in  June,  1858.  He  was  in  consequence  con- 
demned to  death — ^by  suicide. 

**The  non-fulfillment  of  this  treaty  led  gradually  to  the  war 


of  1856-57. 

The  ratification  signed  by  Queen  Victoria  and  the  emperor 

formally  exchanged July  22  1843 

Canton  opened  to  the  British July  27  1843 

Appointment  of  Mr.  Davis  in  the  room  of  Sir  Henry  Pottin- 
ger   Feb.  16  1844 

Bogue  forts  captured  by  the  British April  5 1847 

Hongkong  and  the  neighborhood  visited  by  a violent  typhoon; 
immense  damage  done  to  the  shipping;  upwards  of  1,000 

boat-dwellers  on  the  Canton  river  drowned Oct.  1848 

H.  M.  steamship  Medea  destroys  13  pirate  junks  in  the  Chi- 
nese seas  March  4 1850 

Rebellion  breaks  out  in  Quang-si Aug.  1850 

Appearance  of  the  pretender,  Tien-teh*** March  1851 


***The  Emperor  Taou-Kwang,  who  died  Feb.  25,  1850,  during 
the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  became  liberal  in  his  views,  and  favored 
the  introduction  of  European  arts ; but  his  son,  the  late  Emperor, 


228 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


a rash  and  narrow-minded  prince,  quickly  departed  from  his  father’s 
wise  policy,  and  adopted  reactionary  measures,  particularly  against 
English  influence.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  consequence,  Au- 
gust, 1850,  and  quickly  became  of  alarming  importance.  The  insur- 
gents at  first  proposed  only  to  expel  the  Tartars;  but  in  March,  1851, 
a pretender  was  announced  among  them,  first  by  the  name  of  Tien- 
teh  (Celestial  Virtue),  but  afterward  assuming  other  names.  He  is 
stated  to  have  been  a native  of  Quang-si,  of  obscure  origin,  but  to 
have  obtained  some  literary  knowledge  at  Canton  about  1835,  and 
to  have  become  acquainted  at  that  time  with  the  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity from  a Chinese  Christian,  named  Leang-afa,  and  also  from 
the  missionary  Roberts  in  1844.  He  announced  himself  as  the 
restorer  of  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  Shang-ti,  and  derived  many 
of  his  dogmas  from  the  Bible.  He  declared  himself  to  be  the  mon- 
arch of  all  beneath  the  sky,  the  true  lord  of  China  (and  thus  of  all 
the  world),  the  brother  of  Jesus,  and  the  second  son  of  God,  and 
demanded  universal  submission.  He  made  overtures  for  alliance 
to  Lord  Elgin  in  November,  i860.  His  followers  were  termed 
Taepings,  ‘‘princes  of  peace,”  a title  utterly  belied  by  their  atrocious 
deeds.  The  rebellion  was  virtually  terminated,  July  18,  1864,  by  the 
capture  of  Nankin,  the  suicide  of  Tien-Wang,  and  the  execution  of 
the  military  leaders. 

Defeat  of  Leu,  the  imperial  commissioner,  and  destruction  of 

half  the  army  June  19  1852 

Successful  progress  of  the  rebels;  the  Emperor  applies  to  the 

Europeans  for  help,  without  success March  and  April  1853 

The  rebels  take  Nankin,  March  19  and  20;  Amoy,  May  19; 

Shanghai  Sept.  7 1853 

And  besiege  Canton  without  success August-No vember  1854 

The  scanty  accounts  are  unfavorable  to  the  rebels,-  the  impe- 
rialists having  retaken  Shanghai,  Amoy  and  many  import- 
ant places.. 1855 

Outrage  on  the  British  lorcha  Arrow,  in  Canton  river*. . .Oct.  8 1856 
*It  was  boarded  by  the  Chinese  officers,  12  men  out  of  the  crew  of 
14  being  carried  off  and  the  national  ensign  taken  down.  Sir  J. 
Bowring,  governor  of  Hong-Kong,  being  compelled  to  resort  to  hos- 
tilities, applied  to  India  and  Ceylon  for  troops.  On  March  3,  1857, 
the  house  of  commons,  by  a majority  of  19,  censured  Sir  John  for 
the  “violent  measures”  he  had  pursued.  The  ministry  (who  took 
his  part)  dissolved  the  parliament,  but  obtained  a large  majority  in 
the  new  on^. 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


229 


After  vain  negotiations  with  Commissioner  Yeh,  Canton  forts 

attacked  and  taken Oct.  23  1856 

A Chinese  fleet  destroyed  and  Canton  bombarded  by  Sir  M. 

Seymour  Nov.  3-4  1856 

Imperialists  defeated,  quit  Shanghai Nov.  6 1856 

The  Americans  revenge  an  attack  by  capturing  three  forts 

Nov.  21-23  1856 

Rebels  take  Kuriking Nov.  25  1856 

Other  forts  taken  by  the  British December  1856 

The  Chinese  burn  European  factories Dec.  14  1856 

And  murder  the  crew  of  the  Thistle Dec.  30  1856 

The  Mahometans  of  Panthay,  in  Yunan,  become  independent 

during  the  Tae-ping  rebellion 1856 

A-lum,  a Chinese  baker,  acquitted  of  charge  of  poisoning  the 

bread Feb.  2 1857 

Troops  arrive  from  Madras  and  England,  and  Lord  Elgin  ap- 
pointed envoy March  1857 

No  change  on  either  side;  Yeh  said  to  be  straitened  for  money; 
the  imperialists  seem  to  be  gaining  ground  on  the  rebels. . . 

May  1857 

Total  destruction  of  the  Chinese  fleet  by  Commodore  Elliot, 

May  25-27,  and  Sir  M.  Seymour  and  Commodore  Keppel. . 

June  I 1857 

Blockade  of  Canton August  1857 

Stagnation  in  the  war — Lord  Elgin  departs  to  Calcutta,  with 
assistance  to  the  English  against  the  Sepoys,  July  16;  re- 
turns to  Hongkong Sept.  25  1857 

Gen.  Ashburnham  departs  for  India,  and  Gen.  Straubenzee 

assumes  the  command Oct.  19  1857 

Canton  bombarded  and  taken  by  English  and  French,  Dec. 

28-29,  1857;  who  enter  it Jan.  5 1858 

Yeh*  sent  a prisoner  to  Calcutta January  1858 

-*He  died  peacefully  at  Calcutta,  April  9,  1859.  He  is  said  to 
have  ordered  the  beheading  of  about  100,000  rebels. 

The  allies  proceed  toward  Pekin  and  take  the  Pel-ho  forts... 

May  20  1858 

The  expedition  arrives  at  Tien-tsin May  20  1858 

Negotiations  commence,  June  5;  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Tien- 
tsin by  Lord  Elgin,  Baron  Gros  and  Keying  (who  signed 
the  treaty  of  1842) — [Ambassadors  to  be  at  both  courts; 
freedom  of  trade;  toleration  of  Christianity;  expenses  of 


230 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


war  to  be  paid  by  China;  a revised  tariff;  term  I {bar- 
barian) to  be  no  longer  applied  to  Europeans] 

June  26,  28,  29  1858 

Lord  Elgin  visits  Japan  and  concludes  an  important  treaty 

with  the  Emperor .Aug.  28  1898 

The  British  destroy  about  130  piratical  junks  in  the  Chinese 

seas August  and  September  1858 

Lord  Elgin  proceeds  up  the  Yangtse-Kiang  to  Nankin,  Janu- 
ary; returns  to  England May  1859 

Mr.  Bruce,  the  British  envoy,  on  his  way  to  Pekin,  is  stopped 
in  the  river  Pei-ho  (or  Tien-tsin)  ; Admiral  Hope  attempt- 
ing to  force  a passage,  is  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  81 

killed  and  about  390  wounded June  25  1859 

The  American  envoy  Ward  arrives  at  Pekin,  and,  refusing  to 
submit  to  degrading  ceremonies,  does  not  see  the  Emperor 

July  29  1859 

Commercial  treaty  with  the  United  States Nov.  24  1859 

The  English  and  French  prepare  an  expedition  against  China. . 

October  1859 

Lord  Elgin  and  Baron  Gros  sail  for  China,  April  26;  wrecked 
near  Point  de  Galle,  Ceylon,  May  23;  arrive  at  Shanghai. . . 

June  29,  i860 

The  war  begins : the  British  commanded  by  Sir  Hope  Grant,  the 
French  by  General  Montauban.  The  Chinese  defeated  in 

a skirmish  near  the  Pei-ho Aug.  12  i860 

The  allies  repulse  the  Tae-ping  rebels  attacking  Shanghai  Aug. 
18-20;  and  take  the  Taku  forts,  losing  500  killed  and 

wounded;  the  Tartar  General  San-ko-lin-sin  retreats 

Aug.  21  i860 

After  vain  negotiations  the  allies  advance  toward  Pekin;  they 

defeat  the  Chinese  at  Chang-kia-wan  and  Pa-li-chiau 

Sept.  18  and  21  i860 

Consul  Parkes,  Captains  Anderson  and  Brabazon,  Mr.  De 

Norman,  Mr.  Bowlby  (the  Times*  correspondent),  and  14 
others  (Europeans  and  Sikhs),  advance  to  Tung-chow, 
to  arrange  conditions  for  a meeting  of  the  ministers,  and 
are  captured  by  San-ko-lin-sin ; Captain  Brabazon  and 
Abbe  de  Luc  beheaded,  and  said  to  be  thrown  into  the 

canal;  others  carried  into  Pekin Sept.  21  i860 

The  allies  march  toward  Pekin;  the  French  ravage  the  Em- 
peroPs  summer  palace,  Oct.  6;  Mr.  Parkes,  Mr.  Loch  and 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


231 


others  restored  alive,  Oct.  8;  Captain  Anderson,  Mr.  De 

Norman  and  others  die  of  ill-usage Oct.  8-ii  i860 

Pekin  invested ; surrenders,  Oct.  12 ; severe  proclamation  of  Sir 

Hope  Grant Oct.  15  i860 

The  bodies  of  Mr.  De  Norman  and  Mr.  Bowlby  solemnly  buried 
in  the  Russian  cemetery,  Pekin,  Oct.  17 ; the  summer  palace 
(Yuen-ming-yuen)  burnt  by  the  British,  in  memory  of  the 

outraged  prisoners Oct.  18  i860 

Convention  signed  in  Pekin  by  Lord  Elgin  and  the  Prince 
Kung,  by  which  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  is  ratified;  apology 
made  for  the  attack  at  Pei-ho  (June  25,  1859)  J a large 
indemnity  to  be  paid  immediately,  and  compensation  in 
money  given  to  the  families  of  the  murdered  prisoners, 
etc. ; Kowloon  ceded  in  exchange  for  Chusan,  and  the 
treaty  and  convention  to  be  proclaimed  throughout  the 

empire Oct.  24  i860 

Allies  quit  Pekin Nov.  5 i860 

Treaty  between  Russia  and  China — the  former  obtaining  free 

trade,  territories,  etc Nov.  14  i860 

First  installment  of  indemnity  paid Nov.  30  i860 

Part  of  the  allied  troops  settled  at  Tien-tsin;  consulate  estab- 
lished  Jan.  5 1861 

Admiral  Hope  examines  Yangtse-Kiang,  etc Feb.  1861 

English  and  French  embassies  established  at  Pekin March,  1861 

The  Emperor  Heinfung  dies Aug.  21  1861 

Canton  restored  to  the  Chinese Oct.  21  1861 

Ministerial  crisis;  several  ministers  put  to  death,  Nov.;  Kung 

appointed  regent  Dec.  13  1861 

Advance  of  the  rebels;  they  seize  and  desolate  Ning-po  and 

Hang-chow  December  1861 

They  advance  on  Shanghai,  which  is  placed  under  protection 

of  the  English  and  French  and  fortified January  1862 

Rebels  defeated  in  two  engagements April  1862 

English  and  French  assist  the  government  against  the  rebels — 

Ning-po  retaken  May  10  1862 

French  Admiral  Protet  killed  in  an  attack  on  rebels. ..  .May  17  1862 
Captain  Sherard  Osborne  permitted  by  the  Britiish  government 
to  organize  a small  fleet  of  gunboats  to  aid  the  imperialists 

to  establish  order July  1862 

Imperialists  gain  ground,  take  Kah-sing,  etc October  1862 

Tungani  (Mahometan)  revolt  in  Central  Asia;  massacre  of 


232 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Buddhists  1862 

Commercial  treaty  with  Prussia  ratified Jan.  14  1863 

The  Imperialists  under  Col.  Charles  Gordon  defeat  the  Tae-pings 

under  Burgevine,  etc October  1863 

Gordon  captures  Sowchow  (after  a severe  attack,  Nov.  27  and 
28) ; the  rebel  chiefs  treacherously  butchered  by  the 

Chinese  Dec.  4-5  1863 

Capt.  Osborne  came  to  China;  but  retired  in  consequence  of 
the  Chinese  government  departing  from  its  engagements. . 

Dec.  31  1863 

Gordon's  successes  continue January  to  April  1864 

Repulsed;  he  takes  Chang-chow-foo March  23  1864 

He  takes  Nankin  (a  heap  of  ruins)  ; Hun-seu-tseun,  the  Tien- 
wang,  the  rebel  emperor,  commits  suicide  by  eating  gold 
leaf,  June  30;  Chang- wang  and  Kan-wang,  the  rebel  gener- 
als, are  '^cut  into  a thousand  pieces” July  18  1864 

Great  mortality  among  British  troops  at  Kowloon January  1865 

The  Tae-pings  hold  Ming-chow;  the  Mahometan  rebellion 

(Douganese)  progressing  in  Honan January-March  1865 

Tae-pings  evacuate  Ming-chow May  23  1865 

Rebellion  in  the  north  advancing June  1865 

A rebellion  of  the  Nien-fei  in  the  north;  Pekin  in  danger.  .July  1865 
The  Chinese  general  San-ko-lin-sin  defeated  and  slain ; his  son 

more  successful July  1865 

Prince  Kung  chief  of  the  regency  again Nov.  7 1865 

Sir  Rutherford  Alcock,  ambassador  at  Pekin Nov.  26  1865 

Chinese  newspaper,  ‘‘Messenger  of  the  Flying  Dragon,”  appears 

in  London Jan.  14  1866 

Great  victory  over  the  Nien-fei  announced  at  Canton. March  13  1866 

Chinese  commissioners  visit  London June  1866 

Rivalry  of  two  great  political  chiefs  in  China,  Li  Hung  ching 

and  Tsen-kwo-fan July  1866 

Reported  victory  of  the  Nien-fei  over  the  Imperialists. ..  .Dec.  1867 
Mahomed  Yakoob  Beg  defeats  the  Tungani,  becomes  supreme 

in  Kashgar,  1866;  is  recognized  by  Europe 1867 

The  rebels  seize  Ning-po Oct.  1868 

The  people  at  Yang-chow,  incited  by  the  “literati”  (learned 
classes),  destroy  the  Protestant  mission  houses,  Aug.  22; 
redress  not  obtained;  a British  squadron  proceeds  to  Nan- 
kin, Nov.  8;  the  viceroy  is  superseded,  and  the  British  de- 
mands acceded  to * ....... Nov.  14  i868 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


233 


Chinese  embassy  (Mr.  Anson  Burlinghame,  Chin  Kang,  and 
Sun  Chia  Su)  received  by  President  Johnson  at  Washing- 
ton, June  5;  they  sign  a treaty,  July  4;  arrive  in  London, 


Sept;  received  by  the  queen Nov.  20  1868 

Chinese  embassy  received  by  the  Emperor  at  Paris Jan.  24  1869 

Pekin  visited  by  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  incognito October  1869 

Supplementary  convention  to  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  (June, 

1858)  for  additional  commercial  freedom,  signed... Oct  24  1869 

Burlinghame  dies  at  St  Petersburg Feb.  22  1870 

Successful  rebellion  of  Mahometans  in  northwest  provinces 

reported  May  1870 


Cruel  massacre  of  the  French  consul  at  Tien-tsin,  Roman  Cath- 
olic priests,  Sisters  of  Mercy  (22  persons),  besides  many 
native  converts,  and  above  30  children  in  the  orphanage, 
by  a mob,  with,  it  is  said,  the  complicity  of  the  authorities ; 

the  missionaries  were  accused  of  kidnaping  children 

June  21  1870 

Increased  hatred  of  the  people  to  foreigners  at  Tien-tsin;  luke- 
warm proceedings  of  the  government  against  the  murder- 
ers   July  1870 

Ma,  a viceroy  of  Nankin,  favorable  to  Europeans,  assassinated 

About  Aug.  22  1870 

Chapels  destroyed  at  Fatshan Sept.  21  1870 

The  French  ultimatum  refused ; the  murderers  of  the  nuns  un- 
punished; Chinese  warlike  preparations  reported.  .Sept.  26  1870 
Judicious  mandate  from  the  mandarin  Tseng-kwo-fan,  excul- 
pating the  missionaries  and  condemning  their  massacre... 

October  1870 

16  coolies  beheaded^  Sept.  15,  and  23  exiled;  indemnity  to  the 

sufferers  by  the  outrage  ordered;  reported Oct.  26  1870 

End  of  the  difficulty  announced Nov.  3 1870 

Chung-how,  an  envoy,  arrives  in  London August  1871 

Memorial  addressed  to  the  Chinese  government  by  Mr.  Hart, 
inspector  of  customs,  recommending  changes  in  civil  and 

military  administration  Autumn,  1871 

The  young  Emperor  married Oct.  16  1871 

Received  at  Paris;  apologizes  for  Tien-tsin  massacres,  and  re- 
ports redress  Nov.  23  1871 

Russia  annexes  Kuldja 1871 

Wm.  Armstrong  Russell  consecrated  Anglican  bishop  of  North 

China  Dec.  187^ 


234 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


The  Emperor’s  majority  5 he  assumes  the  government.  .Feb.  23  1873 
Talifoo,  capital  of  the  insurgent  Panthay  Mahometans,  cap- 


tured; thousands  massacred February  1873 

Foreign  ministers  for  the  first  time  received  by  the  emperor. . . . 

June  29  1873 

Dispute  with  Japan,  July- August;  settled  by  treaty Oct.  31  1874 


The  Spark  sails  from  Canton  to  Macao ; Captain  Brady  and  Mr. 
Mundy,  and  a foreign  crew  and  passengers;  pirates,  who 
came  on  board  secretly,  kill  captain  and  others,  and  carry 
off  booty,  while  on  voyage;  the  wounded  crew  manage  to 


reach  Macao Aug.  22  1874 

Death  of  the  Emperor Jan.  12  1875 


Proclamation  of  his  successor,  Tsai-tsin,  son  of  Chun,  7th  son 

of  Taou-Twang  (nephew  of  Kung) Feb.  4 1875 

Exploring  expedition  under  Col.  Horace  Browne  to  open  a pas- 
sage from  Burmah  into  Southwest  China,  December,  1874; 

Mr.  Margary  and  5 Chinese  going  before,  killed  at  Man- 
wyne,  Feb.  21 ; Col.  Brown  and  his  troops  repulse  an  attack 
by  Chinese,  but  retreat  to  Rangoon,  Feb.  22;  some  of  the 

party  missing  March  12  1875 

Through  negotiations  of  Mr.  Wade,  the  Chinese  government 

promises  due  reparation;  announced September  1875 

Edict  permitting  intercourse  betwen  chiefs  of  departments  and 
foreign  ministers,  about  Oct.  4;  enjoining  proper  treatment 

of  foreigners  Oct.  ii  1875 

Telegram  from  Mr.  Wade;  he  has  obtained  necessary  guaran- 
tees, satisfaction  for  the  murder  of  Mr.  Margary,  and  con- 
cessions for  foreign  trade Oct.  18  1875 

Gen.  Lee-see-ta-hee  ordered  for  trial,  Feb.  ii;  Margary’s  mur- 
derers said  to  be  executed May  5 1876 

First  railway  in  China,  from  Shanghai  to  Oussoon  (Woosung), 

(ii  miles)  ; trial  trip,  March  16  (at  first  opposed)  ; publicly 

opened  June  30  1876 

Mr.  Grosvenor  and  others,  sent  to  inquire  respecting  the  murder 
of  Mr.  Margary,  arrive  at  the  place  and  report  the  proposed 

punishment  of  the  murderers June  1876 

Chefoo  convention;  difficulties  in  the  negotiations  removed 
(the  government  agree  to  compensation  to  Mr.  Margary’s 
family ; removal  of  commercial  grievances ; opening  of  four 
ports ; proper  official  intercourse) ; said  to  be  signed.  Sept. 

1x3;  ratified .....Sept  X7  1876 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


235 


War  against  the  Tungani ; Manas  captured ; great  massacre  of 

rebels  Nov.  6 1876 

Accredited  Chinese  envoy  (Quo-ta-Zhan)  lands  at  Southampton 

Jan.  21  1877 

Decree  of  equal  rights  to  Chinese  Christians Feb.  i 1877 

Dreadful  famine  in  northern  provinces 1877 

Four  more  Chinese  ports  opened April  i 1877 

Opium  smoking  interdicted  after  3 years;  announced. . .August  1877 
The  railway  from  Shanghai  bought  to  be  stopped,  Oct.  31 ; re- 
sumed   December  1877 

Quo-ta-Zhan  (or  Kuo-ta-Jen)  first  accredited  minister  at  Lon- 
don; Liu-ta-Jen  at  Berlin About  November  1877 

Yakoob  Beg  of  Kashgaria  totally  defeated  by  the  Chinese  gen- 
eral, Tso-tsung-tang;  is  assassinated,  May;  Kashgar  and 

other  towns  captured;  end  of  war December  1877 

The  Chinese  minister’s  first  grand  evening  reception. . .June  19  1878 
Destruction  of  mission  property  at  Wu-shih-shan  by  a fanatical 

mob,  unrestrained  by  the  mandarins Aug.  30  1878 

Famine  abating;  £48,303  for  relief  collected  in  England 

September  1878 

The  Shanghai  railway  plant  removed  to  Formosa 1878 

Chinese  immigrants  virtually  excluded  from  Australia  by  a poll- 

tax  1878 

Rebellion  in  Kwang-si  announced October  1878 

Chung-How,  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg,  demands  the  sur- 
render of  Kuli  Beg,  a fugitive  from  Kashgar,  and  restitu- 
tion of  the  territory December  1878 

Rebellion  in  Hainan,  in  Canton  province;  Li-Yang-tsai,  who  in- 
vades Annam,  claims  the  throne  by  descent;  reported 

January  1879 

Marquis  Tseng,  the  new  Chinese  ambassador,  arrives  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  28;  presents  his  credentials  to  the  Queen 

March  20  1879 

Treaty  with  Russia,  who  agrees  to  evacuate  the  Kuldja  terri- 


tory, China  to  pay  an  indemnity About  June  1879 

Li-Yang-tsai,  rebel  chief,  captured;  announced Dec.  2 1879 

Chung-How,  the  late  Chinese  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg, 

imprisoned  and  the  treaty  disavowed Spring,  1880 


Chinese  from  Kashgar  said  to  invade  Russian  territory. ..  .May  1880 
Prospect  of  war;  Col.  Gordon  goes  to  China  from  Bombay. June  1880 
Li  Hung  Chang,  governor  of  metropolitan  provinces,  fortifies 


236 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


approaches  to  the  capital,  June;  visited  by  Col.  Gordon.. 

July  1880 

Chung-How  released;  proposed  war  with  Russia  given  up;  an- 
nounced   July  15  1880 

Thomas,  Duke  of  Genoa,  sails  up  the  Yangtse-Kiang  in  an 

Italian  vessel  April  1880 

Peace  with  Russia,  who  makes  concessions  negotiated  by  Mar- 
quis Tseng;  treaty  signed Aug.  19  1881 

Complication  with  France  respecting  Tonquin September  1883 

September  1883 

Mr.  Logan  sentenced  to  seven  years'  penal  servitude  for  killing 

a coolie  at  Canton September  1883 

Canton  greatly  excited  against  foreigners October  1883 

Correspondence  of  France  and  China  respecting  Tonquin  pub- 
lished in  the  Times,  both  firm Oct.  29  1883 

Warm  reception  of  Sir  Henry  Parkes  as  British  ambassador. . 

September  1883 

China  issues  a circular  claiming  Annam  as  a dependency 

November  1883 

Coup  d'etat  at  Pekin  effected  by  Prince  Chun,  father  of  the 
reigning  Emperor,  who  becomes  dictator ; Prince  Kung  and 

the  viceroy,  Li  Hung  Chang,  deposed April  ii,  et  seq.  1884 

The  Marquis  Tseng  recalled  from  Paris,  announced May  2 1884 

Replaced  by  Li  Fong  Pao  About  May  8,  1884 

Treaty  with  France,  signed  by  Captain  Fournier  and  Li  Hung 
Chang,  at  Tien-tsin;  French  protectorate  of  Annam  and 
Tonquin  recognized;  three  southern  provinces  opened  to 

commerce  May  ii  1884 

The  Chinese  break  the  treaty  by  attacking  the  French  marching 

to  occupy  Langson 1884 

The  French  demand  evacuation  of  the  Tonquin  frontier  forts, 

and  £10,000,000  indemnity July  1884 

The  Vv^ay  party  at  Pekin  oppose  the  Empress  and  Li  Hung 

Chang,  the  viceroy July  1884 

The  frontier  towns  to  be  surrendered,  the  indemnity  refused, 

announced  July  30  1884 

China  offers  reduced  indemnity August  1884 

Kelung  in  Formosa  bombarded  and  forts  destroyed  by  alleged 

treachery  by  Admiral  Lespes Aug.  5-6  1884 

Admiral  Courbet  at  Foochow Aug.  10  1884 

Negotiations  at  Shanghai August  1884 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


237 


France  declines  mediation  of  the  powers;  France  issues  a cir- 
cular to  the  powers Aug.  17  1884 

Indemnity  claimed  by  France,  reduced  to  £3,200,000,  Aug.  19; 

refused  by  China 1884 

The  French  ambassador,  Semalle,  leaves  Pekin;  war  ensues. . . . 

Aug.  21  1884 

Admiral  Courbet  with  his  fleet  sails  up  the  Min  river  unat- 
tacked; destroys  the  Chinese  fleet  with  much  slaughter, 

Aug.  23 ; bombards  the  arsenal  at  Foochow,  and  dismantles 
the  forts;  destroys  the  forts  and  batteries,  etc.,  at  Mingan 
and  Kinpai;  French  killed,  about  7;  Chinese  said  to  be 

about  1,000 Aug.  26-28,  1884 

Li  Hung  Chang  deprived  of  his  highest  offices.  .About  Aug.  28  1884 
Chinese  declaration  of  war  in  a manifesto  to  the  people  an- 
nounced  Sept.  6 1884 

Chinese  said  to  be  defeated  at  Kinpai  Pass About  Sept.  16  1884 

H.  M.  gunboat  Zephyr  fired  on  by  mistake,  Sept.  6;  Chinese 

apologize  Sept.  18  1884 

Europeans  at  Shanghai  and  other  places  protest  against  the 

war  September  1884 

Li  Hung  Chang  reappointed  viceroy About  Sept.  24  1884 

Admiral  Courbet  captures  Kelung,  Oct.  i ; Admiral  Lespes 

bombards  Tamsui,  Oct.  2 et  seq.;  lands;  retires Oct.  8 1884 

North  and  West  Formosa  blockaded Oct.  23  1884 

Kelung  occupied  by  French;  little  resistance Oct.  8 1884 

I,  000  Chinese  defeated  near  Tamsui,  Nov.  2;  repulsed  in  an 

attack  on  Kelung,  announced Nov.  12  1884 

Fruitless  mediation  of  Earl  Granville  with  Marquis  Tseng, 

announced Dec.  10  1884 

Reported  Chinese  defeat  near  Kelung Dec.  13  1884 

The  native  press,  originally  official  {Pekin  Gazette,  ancient), 

becomes  political  and  popular. 1884 

Foreign  Enlistment  Act  proclaimed  at  Hongkong .Jan.  23  1885 

French  attack  near  Kelung,  Chinese  works  carried Jan.  25  1885 

Chinese  defeated  with  much  loss.  . Jan.  31  1885 

Two  Chinese  junks  sunk  by  French  torpedoes Feb.  15  1885 

Bombardment  of  Chin-hae,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yung-Kiang 

river  March  2 1885 

Siege  of  Tuyen  Quan,  much  slaughter March  2-3  1885 

Several  forts  at  Kelung  captured,  sanguinary  conflicts 

March  4-12  1885 


238 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


Sir  Henry  Parkes,  ambassador,  dies March  22  1885 

Pescadores  Islands  captured March  30-31  1885 


Preliminaries  of  peace,  through  intervention  of  Sir  Robt.  Hart, 
signed  at  Pekin  about  April  6;  treaty  signed  June  9;  ratified 

Nov.  28  1885 

Sir  Robert  Hart,  British  ambassador,  June  23;  resigns  about. . . 

Aug.  31  1885 

Formosa  evacuated About  June  23  1885 

Introduction  of  railways  authorized — new  policy;  about. August  1885 

Disputes  with  Japan  settled;  reported August  1885 

The  Emperor  agrees  to  receive  a papal  agent  to  protect  Roman 

Catholic  missionaries  * July  1885 

Death  of  Tso  Tsung-Tang,  a great  statesman  and  guardian  of 

the  King Sept.  4 1885 

Sir  John  Walsham,  British  minister April  7 1886 

Liu-shin-fun,  ambassador  for  Great  Britain,  arrives. . .April  28  1886 

M.  Agliardi  appointed  Internuncio July  14  1886 

The  scheme  suspended  by  the  Pope  through  French  opposition 

About  Sept.  15  1886 

Convention  with  many  concessions  by  the  British  government 
respecting  the  Burmese  frontiers  and  trade  signed  at  Pekin 

July  24  1886 

The  French  consent  to  the  transfer  of  the  Pehtang  Cathedral 

from  its  contiguity  with  the  palace November  1886 

The  Chinese  annul  the  French  protectorate  over  all  Christians. . 

November  1886 

Decanville  railway  successfully  opened Nov.  21  1886 

General  proclamations  for  protection  of  Christian  missionaries 

and  converts,  excluding  foreign  protection January  1887 

Remarkable  presents  from  the  Emperor  to  Sir  Halliday  Ma- 
cartney, secretary  of  the  British  and  other  legations  (for 

good  services  to  China)  received  in  London February  1887 

The  Emperor,  aged  16,  assumes  the  government Feb.  7 1887 

Convention  between  Great  Britain  and  China,  resepcting  Bur- 

mah  and  Tibet,  signed  July  24,  and  ratified Aug.  25  1887 

Chinese  fleet  of  five  ironclads  (three  constructed  in  Britain)  at 
Spithead,  sail  for  China  under  Admiral  Lang,  with  others 

lent  by  the  Admiralty September  1887 

Commercial  treaty  with  France,  1886;  signed  and  ratified 

August  1887 

Reported  convention  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  the  viceroy,  with  Count 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


1888 


Mitkiewicz  and  an  American  syndicate  for  introduction  ol 
railways,  telegraphs,  telephones,  etc.,  and  a loan,  August; 

repudiated  by  the  Chinese  government October 

Overflow  of  the  Hwangho,  or  Yellow  River,  causing  immense 
destruction;  about  1,500  populous  villages  destroyed,  and 
the  important  city,  Chuhsien  Chen,  narrowly  escaped  with 
loss  of  suburbs ; millions  of  persons  said  to  have  perished ; 
famine  imminent ; the  government  active  in  providing  relief 

September-October  1887 

Treaty  with  United  States  to  allow  Chinese  immigration  for  20 
years  with  some  exceptions  (lawful  marriage  and  children, 
property  worth  $1,000,  etc.)  signed  March  14,  1888; 

China  refuses  the  ratification September 

The  Empress-mother  announces  her  resignation  of  the  admin- 
istration of  government,  which  is  to  be  assumed  by  the  Em- 
peror   July  27 

The  Chinese  Exclusion  Act  vigorously  carried  out  at  San  Fran-  \ 

cisco,  and  at  other  places Middle  October  !^8l 

Railway  from  Tien-tsin  to  Taku  opened November  1888 

Conventions  with  Italy  and  Germany  for  them  to  protect  their 

missionaries,  announced  December  issa 

New  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  at  Pekin  consecrated Dec.  8 188S 

Great  famine  in  consequence  of  inundations  of  the  Yangtse 
and  Yellow  River  valleys  announced  January,  1889;  relief 
money  sent  from  London,  above  £30,000  (gratefully  ac- 
knowledged)   1889 

Riots  at  Chin-Kiang,  the  British  consulate  and  foreigners’ 

houses  burnt  Feb.  4-5,  1889 

Marriage  of  the  emperor Feb.  25  1889 

Hsieh  Ta  Jen  appointed  minister  for  London,  Paris,  Brussels 

and  Rome,  announced June  4 

Luchow,  in  the  province  of  Szechuen,  destroyed  by  fire,  about 

1,200  persons  perish June  27 

The  Yellow  River  again  burst  its  banks,  causing  must  destruc- 
tion  About  July  22  1889 

The  Yellow  River  bursts  its  banks  at  Shantung  and  inundates 

the  country,  and  countless  lives  are  lost,  reported.  .July  26  i88q 
Great  inundations  in  North  China  through  typhoons;  about 

5,000  persons  perish,  reported ^ Aug. 

t construction  of  a trunk  railway  from  Pekin  to  Hankow, 

^iles,  proposed  Auga 


i88d 


1889 


^The  cor 

■^il 


lates 

y 26  i88g 
bout 

, 7og^H 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


nsurrection  in  the  province  of  Fuhkien ; suppressed ; lOO  insur- 
gents killed ; announced .... Sept.  9 1889 

'Collapse  of  a temple  theater  at  Hangting,  near  Shantung ; about 

’ 250  persons  killed.. Oct  13  1889 

The  project  postponed  through  opposition December  1889 

Insurrection  in  the  Amour  district  of  Manchuria ; reported  suc- 
cess of  the  rebels;  they  size  the  town  Lan-pei-tuah ; Im- 
perialists defeated  in  battles;  announced December  1889 

Imperial  decree  for  reforms  in  the  army  and  civil  services ; pro- 
moted by  the  emperor January-February  1890 

Convention  for  the  opening  of  the  Chung-King  to  commerce 

signed  at  Pekin March  31  1890 

Death  of  the  Marquis  Tseng,  eminent  statesman April  12  1890 

The  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Connaught  honorably  received  in 

Canton  and  Shanghai May  1890 

Fif  floods  at  Pekin,  Tungchow  and  Tien-tsin;  business 
‘stopped,  Aug.  3;  renewal  of  the  Yellow  River  inundations 
early  September ; also  in  the  provinces  Shantung  and  Chihli ; 

^ great  loss  of  life  and  prospects  of  famine  reported.  .Oct.  16  1890 
Explosion  of  the  government  powder  magazine  at  Canton,  kill- 
ing many  persons  and  destroying  200  houses,  Aug.  15;  a 
similar  explosion  at  Taiping-Fu,  300  persons  killed,  re- 
ported   Nov.  7 1890 

Massacre  of  many  native  Christians  at  Jongtuytsin  and  other 

places  by  a fanatical  society  reported December  1890 

\n  imperial  decree,  granting  audience  of  the  emperor  to  rep- 
resentatives of  foreign  powers  issued Dec.  12  1890 

Death  of  Prince  Chung,  father  of  the  Emperor,  reported.  .Jan.  2 1891 

S'isastrous  floods  in  Shue-Shang,  Wen-Chuan  and  other  dis- 
tricts, about  1,000  lives  lost Early  February  1891 

he  first  audience Marchs  1891 

|Tvnti-European  riots  at  Wuhu;  much  destruction;  British  con- 
sulate wrecked;  the  consul  and  his  wife  escape;  quiet  re- 
stored by  force May  12-13  1891 

"rench  church  and  orphanage  at  Woosieh  destroyed  by  fire. . . . 

June  9 1891 

creased  popular  anti-foreign  agitation  throughout  China, 
une;  the  diplomatic  body  appeal  to  the  government;  the 
^mperor  issues  a decree  for  the  protection  of  foreigners  and 

ishment  of  aggressors About  June  15  18^ 

life  and  much  destruction  by  the  rising  of  the  Yangtse- 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


Kiang About  July  21 

Continued  persecution  of  foreigners;  the  imperial  decree  inef- 
fectual; the  diplomatic  body  press  the  government 

About  Aug.  18  189  j 

The  Kolao  Hui,  a secret  society,  strongly  opposed  to  foreigners 

and  Christianity,  active Summer  189 ij 

The  American  mission  at  Ishang  destroyed Sept,  ii  189 j 

The  outrages  against  foreigners  increase;  the  diplomatic  body 

report  to  their  respective  governments About  Sept.  15  i8| 

Great  Britain,  France,  Germany  and  the  United  States 
unite  for  the  common  support  of  their  people  against 

Chinese  violence,  reported Sept.  21  1891  j 

Compensation  paid  to  the  sufferers  in  Wuhu  by  the  Viceroy 

Oct.  23  1891I 

British  squadron  and  other  vessels  at  Nagasaki  and  other 

ports About  Oct.  23  189^ 

A modus  vivendi  with  the  Chinese  authorities  arranged  by  the 

European  ministers,  reported Nov.  ii 

Insurrection  in  Mongolia  and  North  China  against  foreigners 
and  native  Christians;  reported  massacres,  November;  sup- 
pressed by  the  government  troops  after  battles,  with  much 

slaughter  Nov.  28-29  1891^ 

Agreement  of  the  Hunan  societies  against  Europeans,  etc.,  pub- 
lished at  Shanghai About  Dec.  7 189] 

Memorials  of  the  viceroys  of  Nanking  and  Hukuang  (attribu- 
ting the  anti-foreign  outrages  to  baseless  rumors  circulated 

by  conspirators)  issued December 

The  government  pays  indemnities  amounting  to  £100,000  to 
Christian  missions  and  others,  and  punishes  Chinese  officials 

and  offenders December 

Mr.  Christopher  Gardner,  British  consul,  and  Dr.  Griffith  John, 
missionary,  assert  that  the  anti-foreign  outbreaks  originated 

with  the  local  mandarins,  aided  by  Chanhan  (or  Chou 

Han),  an  eminent  Hunan  scholar  and  writer  of  offensive 

placards,  etc.,  reported December 

The  rebels  in  the  north,  headed  by  Li  Hung,  defeated  by  Yulu, 

reported  Jan.  3 

Mr.  Nicholas  R.  O’Conor  appointed  British  minister  at  Pekin. . 

About  March  4 

ll^n,  the  agitator,  ordered  to  be  arrested,  March  25 ; not 
oL-aiidlence 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 


by  the  foreign  ministers,  rejected Early  April  1892 

ill  for  the  stringent  exclusion  of  Chinese  immigrants  from  the 

United  States,  passed  by  congress Early  May  1892 

enewed  outrages  on  European  missionaries,  April  27,  reported 

June  14  1892 

Great  fire  at  Tchang;  about  50  junks  destroyed  and  200  lives 

lost  Sept.  4 1892 

^reat  inundation  by  the  Yellow  River;  12  towns  said  to  be  de- 
stroyed; reported Sept.  23  1892 

r.  OUonor,  British  minister,  warmly  received  informally  by 

the  Emperor Dec.  13  1892 

The  ancestors  of  Sir  Halliday  Macartney  raised  to  mandarins, 

reported  December  1892 

Famine  in  North  Shensi  reported March  8 1893 

The  Chinese  exclusion  (immigration)  act  in  the  United  States 

comes  into  effect;  (107,475  in  the  States) May  5 1893 

:ng  Chao-quan  appointed  minister  at  St.  James',  reported... 

June  29  1893 

mese  exclusion  amended  bill  passed  by  the  United  States 

senate  Nov.  2 1893 

nsurrection  in  Manchuria  reported May  31  1894 

Gen.  Ting  sent  to  suppress  the  rising,  and  to  redress  griev- 
ances, reported  June  4;  rebellion  subsides June  14  1894 

IvYar  with  Japan July  1894 

fMurderous  outrages  on  missionaries ; murder  of  the  Rev. 
James  Wylie,  Presbyterian,  by  soldiers  at  Liao-Yang;  the 
murderers  beheaded  and  officers  degraded,  reported. Sept.  15  1894 

k Treaty  between  China  and  United  States  ratified August  1894 

■Great  fire  in  Chung  King;  many  deaths Aug.  25  1894 

[Disorganization  of  the  government  and  its  resources  reported. . 

^ August  1894 

Prince  Kung  returns  to  power,  announced October  1894 

Imperial  edict  for  the  protection  of  foreigners  and  mission- 
aries   Oct.  15  1894 

Li  Hung  Chang  (minister)  superseded  by  Prince  Kung  with 

enlarged  powers  Nov.  4 1894 

Rebellion  at  Wuhu;  Admiral  Fremantle  proceeds  there,  re- 
ported   Dec.  10  1894 

rince  Kung  appointed  president  of  the  grand  council,  virtually 
dictator;  Li  Hung  Chang  returns  to  power Dec.  13 


CHONOLOGY  OF  CHINA 


243 


189s 


1895 


1895 


reported March  22, 

Treaty  of  peace  with  Japan  concluded;  April  17;  ratifications 

exchanged  Maly  8 

Foreign  mission  houses  at  Chengtu  and  Szechuan  destroyed  by 

rioters;  missionaries  safe May  29-31 

Loan  of  ii6,ooo,ooo  sterling  from  France  and  Russia,  reported. . 

June  1895 

Treaty  with  France  respecting  boundaries,  commerce,  etc., 

signed  at  Pekin June  25  1895 

Loan  of  400,000,000  francs,  4 per  cent,  guaranteed  by  Russia, 

signed  at  Pekin,  July  4,  at  St.  Petersburg July  6 1895 

Massacre  of  British  missionaries  (the  Rev.  R.  W.  Stewart,  8 
ladies  and  2 children)  at  Whasang,  near  Ku-cheng  by  a 

fanatical  sect  called  Vegetarians Aug.  i 1895 

British  and  American  missions  attacked,  hospitals  destroyed 

at  Fatshan  Aug.  7 1895 

The  British  government  demand  immediate  redress. . .Aug.  17  1895 


For  dates  of  events  in  the  Chinese- Japanese  war,  and  othei 
recent  occurences,  see  Chapter  III.,  “Recent  Events  in  China.” 


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